Landscape change and the science of biodiversity conservation in tropical forests: A view from the temperate world

Using a largely temperate forest perspective, this article briefly reviews four often inter-related types of landscape change which can have significant impacts on tropical and temperate forest biodiversity: logging, fire, forest clearing, and plantation expansion. There are many important similarities but also key differences in the kinds of work conducted on these four kinds of landscape change in tropical and temperate forests. For example, direct studies of the effects of forest conversion on biodiversity are relatively rare in both tropical and temperate ecosystems. Temperate forest research differs from tropical research in terms of relative amount of single species work, long-term studies, and research at scales spanning multiple landscapes. There are key areas for cross-fertilization of research in tropical and temperate forest biomes. These include: (1) the ability of species to persist in post-disturbed forest landscapes, including those perturbed by past clearing, logging or wildfire, (2) the impacts of plantation establishment on biodiversity, (3) the effectiveness of altered silvicultural systems on forest structure, vegetation composition, and biota, and (4) inter-relationships between forest logging and fire-proneness. Cross-learning about the impacts of drivers of landscape change between tropical and temperate forests is fundamental for speeding the progress of conservation efforts in both broad kinds of environments. However, some opportunities for cross-learning have not been taken because temperate and tropical forest research has often sometimes been isolated from one another. Some approaches to tackle this problem are briefly outlined.     

Incorporating anthropogenic threats into evaluations of regional biodiversity and prioritisation of conservation areas in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

Recent attempts to streamline the identification of areas requiring immediate conservation attention have resulted in the development of prioritisation procedures that identify areas of biodiversity importance facing large threats in the near future. This study incorporated biodiversity data on bird and vegetation distribution with an assessment of land use suitability for cultivation and afforestation for the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The low altitude savanna regions in the northeast contain high species diversity, but are unsuitable to alternative forms of land use and are well conserved (by e.g., the Kruger National Park). The central and eastern mountain ranges, sites of high biodiversity, are suitable to dryland cultivation and afforestation and are thus potential conservation priorities. Areas with high biodiversity values, e.g., irreplaceable areas that contain biodiversity features essential for meeting conservation targets, were then investigated for their potential land-use threats in order to prioritise those needing immediate conservation actions. We suggest how losses of biodiversity could be minimised by reaching such decisions more quickly.     

Beyond the forest edge: Ecology, diversity and conservation of the grassy biomes

Forests and grassy vegetation (savannas and grasslands) are alternative ecosystem states in many tropical landscapes. Relative to forests the grassy ecosystems are poorly known and poorly conserved, partly because they were thought to be products of forest clearance. However many grasslands have proved to be ancient. Commensurate with their antiquity, grassy biomes have distinct suites of plant and animal species that contribute a large fraction of the diversity of forest-grassland mosaics. Grasslands differ strikingly from forests in their ecology and in the nature of threats to their future. Here we highlight the high biodiversity value of grassy biomes and, in contrast to tropical forests, we illustrate the importance of fire in maintaining these systems. We discuss the major threats to, and consequences for, biodiversity in these regions including land clearance and elevated CO₂-driven forest expansion. Finally we focus on the difficulties of grassland restoration. A new approach to understanding and conserving grassy ecosystems, free from cultural prejudices of the past, is long overdue.     

Conserve or convert? Pan-tropical modeling of REDD–bioenergy competition

The land competition between tropical bioenergy plantations and payments for forest carbon conservation (e.g., through an international scheme for Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, REDD+) is modeled using spatially explicit data on biofuel feedstock (oil palm and sugar cane) suitability and forest biomass carbon stocks. The results show that a price on the (avoided) carbon emissions from deforestation at the same level as those from fossil fuel use makes clearing for high yielding bioenergy crops unprofitable on about 60% of the tropical evergreen forest area. For the remaining 40% deforestation remains the most profitable option. Continued profitability of forest clearing is most pronounced for oil palm bioenergy systems in Latin America and Africa, with REDD+ making deforestation for sugar cane plantations unprofitable on 97% of evergreen forest land. Results are shown to be relatively robust to assumptions regarding potential yields and to the addition of a ‘biodiversity premium’ on land use change emissions. While REDD+ may play an important role in stemming biodiversity loss and reducing carbon emissions from tropical deforestation in the near future, in the longer run reliance on a system that values forests solely for their carbon retention capacities poses a serious risk. It is imperative that the institutions and policies currently being established as part of REDD+ readiness activities are resilient to future changes in the incentive structures facing tropical forest countries due to, e.g., climate policy induced demand for biofuels.     

Prospects for biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic Forest: Lessons from aging human-modified landscapes

Recent global assessments have shown the limited coverage of protected areas across tropical biotas, fuelling a growing interest in the potential conservation services provided by anthropogenic landscapes. Here we examine the geographic distribution of biological diversity in the Atlantic Forest of South America, synthesize the most conspicuous forest biodiversity responses to human disturbances, propose further conservation initiatives for this biota, and offer a range of general insights into the prospects of forest species persistence in human-modified tropical forest landscapes worldwide. At the biome scale, the most extensive pre-Columbian habitats across the Atlantic Forest ranged across elevations below 800 masl, which still concentrate most areas within the major centers of species endemism. Unfortunately, up to 88% of the original forest habitat has been lost, mainly across these low to intermediate elevations, whereas protected areas are clearly skewed towards high elevations above 1200 masl. At the landscape scale, most remaining Atlantic Forest cover is embedded within dynamic agro-mosaics including elements such as small forest fragments, early-to-late secondary forest patches and exotic tree monocultures. In this sort of aging or long-term modified landscapes, habitat fragmentation appears to effectively drive edge-dominated portions of forest fragments towards an early-successional system, greatly limiting the long-term persistence of forest-obligate and forest-dependent species. However, the extent to which forest habitats approach early-successional systems, thereby threatening the bulk of the Atlantic Forest biodiversity, depends on both past and present landscape configuration. Many elements of human-modified landscapes (e.g. patches of early-secondary forests and tree monocultures) may offer excellent conservation opportunities, but they cannot replace the conservation value of protected areas and hitherto unprotected large patches of old-growth forests. Finally, the biodiversity conservation services provided by anthropogenic landscapes across Atlantic Forest and other tropical forest regions can be significantly augmented by coupling biodiversity corridor initiatives with biota-scale attempts to plug existing gaps in the representativeness of protected areas.     

How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation

Archeologists, paleoecologists and anthropologists argue that ecologists need to give greater consideration to the pre-historical influence of humans in shaping the current structure and composition of tropical forests. We examine these arguments within the context of Amazonia, and assess the extent to which (i) the concepts of “pristine forests” and “cultural parklands” are mutually exclusive, (ii) the aggregated distribution of some plants necessarily indicates enrichment planting, (iii) pre-Columbian human disturbance has increased forest biodiversity, (iv) pre-Columbian indigenous practices were always sustainable, and (v) if indeed, the ecological impacts of pre-Columbian peoples are relevant for modern biodiversity conservation. Overall, we reject the notion that “the pristine myth has been thoroughly debunked” by archeological evidence, and suggest that the environmental impacts of historical peoples occurred along gradients, with high-impacts in settlements and patches of Amazonian Dark Earth (ADE), lesser impacts where occasional enrichment planting took place in forests surrounding agricultural plots, and a very low influence (in terms of light hunting pressure and other types of resource extraction) across vast areas of Amazonia that may always have been far from permanent settlements and navigable rivers. We suggest that the spatial distribution of pre-Columbian finds is given more attention, and urge caution before case studies are extrapolated to the entire Basin. Above all, we feel that debates over “naturalness” and environmental impacts of pre-Columbian humans are of limited relevance to present and future biodiversity conservation, and can detract from the major challenges facing Amazonia and other tropical forest regions today.     

Sustaining biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes in the Western Ghats: Remnant forests matter

Human-modified tropical landscapes under semi-natural or agro-ecosystems often harbor biodiversity of significant conservation value. In the Western Ghats of India, these ecosystems also provide connectivity between protected areas and other remnant forests. We investigated the conservation value of these landscapes and agro-ecosystems using results from 35 studies covering 14 taxonomic groups. Large, conspicuous taxonomic groups and tree-covered land-use types have received much focus in this area of research in the Western Ghats. We computed a response ratio defined as the log ratio of species richness in human land use to species richness in forest control site from 17 studies. In a meta-analysis, we investigated variation of this ratio across studies with respect to three variables: taxonomic group, the land-use type sampled and the extent of forest cover within the study landscape. Higher forest cover within the landscape emerged as a major positive influence on biodiversity in human-modified landscapes for vertebrates and vegetation while no patterns emerged for invertebrates. Our results suggest that loss of remnant forest patches from these landscapes is likely to reduce biodiversity within agro-ecosystems and exacerbate overall biodiversity loss across the Western Ghats. Conservation of these remnant forest patches through protection and restoration of habitat and connectivity to larger forest patches needs to be prioritized. In the densely populated Western Ghats, this can only be achieved by building partnerships with local land owners and stakeholders through innovative land-use policy and incentive schemes for conservation.     

Biodiversity conservation in human-modified Amazonian forest landscapes

Amazonia (sensu lato) is by far the largest tropical forest region, but has succumbed to the highest absolute rates of tropical deforestation and forest degradation, driven by rapid frontier expansion, road-building, and spontaneous or government-subsidized migration. The large area-through-time and paleo-climatic stability of Amazonian forests may help explain the high regional to local scale plant and animal species diversity of true forest specialists and high ecological sensitivity to contemporary land-use change. We describe the prevailing forms of anthropogenic disturbance that affect forest organisms in the context of the geographic and evolutionary background that has shaped the degree to which forest species may be resilient to environmental change. The fate of Amazonian biodiversity will partly depend upon the interaction between land-use and climate change, and the extent to which seasonally-dry forests can retain immunity against catastrophic recurrent wildfires. This review illustrates the importance of considering interactions between different forms of forest disturbance to develop effective conservation policy. We conclude with some considerations of the policy agenda necessary to protect forest cover and forest biodiversity at a meaningful scale across the Amazonian biome.     

Traditional forest management has limited impact on plant diversity and composition in a tropical seasonal rainforest in SW China

In order to determine the impacts of different traditional forest management types on plant diversity of the seasonal tropical rainforests and infer effective conservation strategies, four types of forests with different management histories were studied in Nabanhe National Nature Reserve (NNNR), Xishuangbanna, China. They were: old-growth forest (non-timber product collection allowed), understorey planted old-growth forests, old secondary forests (∼200-years after slash and burn), and young secondary forest (15–50-years after slash and burn). Although human activities affected tree diversity and composition of the forests in NNNR, the forest regeneration potential of the different management systems were good. Even the young secondary forests, that showed the lowest Fisher’s alpha diversity at the plot level, had similar diversity levels to old-growth forest when all plots were combined. Number of red list tree species, timber species, and edible plant species in young secondary forests was as high as those of old-growth forests, and higher than old secondary forests. Additionally, there were a number of vulnerable and endangered species that were more common in the secondary than old-growth forests, indicating the high conservation value of secondary forests. Understorey plantation in old-growth forest, however, impaired regeneration of the climax species. The beneficial effects of traditional forest use depend strongly on its small scale and its close proximity to undisturbed forest, which serves as a species source during secondary forest regeneration. Unfortunately, traditional forest use is now under serious threat by expanding large-scale monoculture rubber plantations.     

Hotspots in cold climate: Conservation value of woodland key habitats in boreal forests

The concept of Woodland Key Habitats (WKH, small-scaled presumed hotspots of biodiversity) has become an essential component of biodiversity conservation in Fennoscandian and Baltic forests. There have been debates over the importance of WKHs in relation to the conservation of biodiversity in production forests. We applied a systematic review protocol and meta-analysis to summarize knowledge on comparisons of biodiversity qualities, such as dead wood and species richness, between WKHs and production forests in relevant countries. We also summarized the knowledge on the impact of edge effects by comparing WKHs surrounded by production forests to WKHs surrounded by clear cuts. Studies had been conducted in Finland, Norway and Sweden. Based on our meta-analysis, WKHs seem to be relative hotspots for dead wood volume, diversity of dead wood, number of species and number of red-listed species. There were some differences also between countries in these biodiversity qualities. Only two studies compared WKHs surrounded by production forests and clear cuts, respectively. Hence, the capability of WKHs to maintain their original species composition and support species persistence over time remains to be addressed, as well as their role in relation to other conservation tools.     

Global dung beetle response to tropical forest modification and fragmentation: A quantitative literature review and meta-analysis

Although insects are crucial for maintaining ecosystem function, our understanding of their overall response to human activity remains limited. This is no less true of dung-burying beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae), which provide a suite of critical ecosystem functions and services, yet but face multiple conservation threats, particularly from landscape conversion. Here we use a review and meta-analysis to synthesize the current knowledge concerning response to tropical forest modification and fragmentation of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae). For every modified habitat type and individual forest fragment across 33 studies, we calculated six dung beetle community parameters, standardized relative to intact tropical forest. We organized modified habitats along an approximate disturbance gradient ranging from selectively logged, late and early secondary forest, through agroforestry, tree plantations, to annual crops, cattle pastures and clear-cuts. Secondary forests, selectively logged forest and agroforests supported rich communities with many intact forest species, while cattle pastures and clear-cuts contained fewer species overall with few forest-dwelling species. Abundance generally declined with increasing modification, but was quite variable. Communities in open habitats were often characterized by hyper-abundance of a small number of small-bodied species, leading to low evenness. Across fragmentation studies, dung beetle species richness, abundance and evenness declined in smaller forest fragments. Richness and abundance sometimes declined in more isolated fragments, although this response appeared to depend on matrix quality. Across both habitat modification and fragmentation studies, geographic location and landscape context appeared to modify dung beetle response by influencing the available pool of colonists. We discuss potential underlying mechanisms and conclude with recommendations for management and conservation and for future research.     

Biodiversity conservation in tropical forest landscapes of Oceania

The fragmented island realm of Oceania includes a relatively small proportion of the world’s tropical forests, but those forests support unusual richness of narrowly endemic species. In common with tropical forests across most of the world, tropical forests in Oceania are declining due to factors associated with increasing human population size, economic drivers and more intensive exploitation. In parts of Oceania, forests are being cleared at unsustainable rates, and replaced with far simpler ecosystems of timber or food crops. To a small degree, the present-day biodiversity of tropical forests in some parts of Oceania may be predisposed to such disturbance, given a history of natural disturbance (particularly through cyclones), and of smaller-scale slash-and-burn agriculture or landscape-scale burning. But, in most places, the current intensity, scale and/or rate of modification far surpass their precedents, and biodiversity is consequently diminishing. Tropical forests in Australia may be an exception to this trend, with now reasonably effective protection. However, more so than for tropical forests in most other continents, the major biodiversity conservation challenges for tropical forests in Oceania are extrinsic. Introduced plants, animals and diseases have collapsed ecological communities through much of Oceania, homogenising the biota from a series of highly distinctive and localised species assemblages to a more impoverished set of ubiquitous disturbance-tolerant exotic species. In many islands, this simplification has occurred regardless of the extent of native forest remaining, such that retention and reservation of primary forest is an insufficient conservation action. The fate of biodiversity in Oceania is also likely to be much affected by climate change, an unbalanced consequence given the region’s relatively small contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. Future hope for biodiversity conservation in tropical forests of Oceania lies in the renewed application of some traditional management constraints, the appropriate delivery of international support (such as may be available through carbon markets), improved quarantine processes, and through some protection naturally offered by the remote scattering of the islands that comprise Oceania.     

多情景退耕还林对林地生物多样性保护价值的潜在影响

退耕还林对生物多样性保护具有显著的正向影响,评估其生物多样性保护生态服务价值意义重大。现有研究多采用当量法计算生物多样性保护的生态服务价值,但该方法未考虑不同林地类型的差异化生物多样性价值,因而难以实现空间精细化评估。该研究从生态连通视角切入,以云南省保山市施甸县为例,根据坡度和相关政策设定1种现状情景(情景I)与3种退耕情景(情景Ⅱ、情景Ⅲ与情景Ⅳ),采用形态空间模式识别生态源地、指数法分析生态连通性和斑块重要性,进而计算各情景下的生物多样性保护的生态服务价值。在此框架中,该研究通过空间精细化手段修正各类林地的当量因子系数。结果表明：随着物种扩散距离的增加,生态连通性增加,情景Ⅱ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ的森林的生物多样性保护的生态服务价值均呈现增加趋势,依次增加了3.02×10⁷、4.7×10⁶和1.57×10⁷元,更有助于增加生物多样性保护生态服务价值的退耕方式是情景Ⅱ;从修正当量角度看,情景Ⅱ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ的修正当量系数分别为1.51、1.46和1.47,最有利的退耕情景为退耕程度最小的情景Ⅱ,而退耕程度最大的情景Ⅲ却没有取得相应的成效...     

Threats, conservation strategies, and prognosis for suckers (Catostomidae) in North America: insights from regional case studies of a diverse family of non-game fishes

Catostomid fishes are a diverse family of 76+ freshwater species that are distributed across North America in many different habitats. This group of fish is facing a variety of impacts and conservation issues that are somewhat unique relative to more economically valuable and heavily managed fish species. Here, we present a brief series of case studies to highlight the threats such as migration barriers, flow regulation, environmental contamination, habitat degradation, exploitation and impacts from introduced (non-native) species that are facing catostomids in different regions. Collectively, the case studies reveal that individual species usually are not threatened by a single, isolated factor. Instead, species in general face numerous stressors that threaten multiple stages of their life history. Several factors have retarded sucker conservation including widespread inabilities of field workers to distinguish some species, lack of basic natural history and ecological knowledge of life history, and the misconception that suckers are tolerant of degraded conditions and are of little social or ecological value. Without a specific constituent group lobbying for conservation of non-game fishes, all such species, including members of the catostomid family, will continue to face serious risks because of neglect, ignorance, and misunderstanding. We suggest that conservation strategies should incorporate research and education/outreach components. Other conservation strategies that would be effective for protecting suckers include freshwater protected areas for critical habitat, restoration of degraded habitat, and design of catostomid-friendly fish bypass facilities. We believe that the plight of the catostomids is representative of the threats facing many other non-game freshwater fishes with diverse life-history strategies globally.     

Recovery of woody plant diversity in tropical rain forests in southern China after logging and shifting cultivation

Logging and intense shifting cultivation have caused major degradation of tropical forests and loss of biodiversity. Understanding the direct and indirect effects of those land uses on plant biodiversity is essential to the restoration of tropical forests. We compared the species diversity, community composition and basal area of all stems ?1 cm dbh among 18 1-ha tropical lowland and montane rain forest plots with a well-recorded long-term history of shifting cultivation and logging on Hainan Island, south China. We also explored the relative importance of disturbance and environmental factors in determining forest recovery. We found that the species density and diversity in old growth forests were higher than in shifting cultivation fallows (55 years old) but lower than in logged forests (35–40 years since logging). The species composition of shifting cultivation fallows was distinct from other forest types but logged forests were similar to old growth forests, especially in lowland forests. Disturbance intensity was the most frequently important factor in determining species composition, species density, diversity, and basal area accumulation. Soil nutrient availability explained some of the variation in species composition and diversity. Stem density was related to multiple factors including disturbance history, soil nutrients, and distance to old-growth forest. In general, we found that disturbance intensity was a better predictor of forest structure and diversity than edaphic environmental variables, highlighting the importance of human impacts in shaping tropical forest successional pathways.     

Conserving forest biodiversity across multiple land ownerships: Lessons from the Northwest Forest Plan and the Southeast Queensland regional forests agreement (Australia)

As the area of the world’s forests shrinks, the management of production forests is becoming increasingly paramount for biodiversity conservation. In the United States and Australia, public debate and controversy about the management of production forests during the later decades of the 20th century resulted in governments adopting sweeping top-down changes to forest policy, with regional forest plans a cornerstone of this process. This paper reviews the biodiversity conservation outcomes of two such processes, the Southeast Queensland Forests Agreement (Australia) and the Northwest Forest Plan (United States). Several key lessons are identified. First, these plans are significant steps forward in the struggle to conserve forest biodiversity while providing for production of timber. Second, expanding the conservation reserve system by itself does not necessarily ensure biodiversity conservation, especially if reserves are traded off for increased timber harvesting in forests outside of reserves or if certain important elements of biodiversity are not accounted for either by conservation forests or production forests. Third, reserves often need active management to restore diversity in previously-logged forests and reduce fuels that have accumulated as a result of fire exclusion. Fourth, the current plans fall short of the comprehensive whole-of-landscape, multiple-ownership approach needed to support long-term sustainable forestry and biodiversity conservation. Fifth, adaptive management was not adequately institutionalized and sometimes misapplied, although, in the case of the Pacific Northwest, a major regional monitoring strategy was developed and partially implemented. Finally, ecological science suffered in the collision with the socio-political decision-making process due to the limited scope that was left for testing and evaluating the new approaches to forest management. We conclude, based on the evaluation of the two regional plans, that regional biodiversity conservation goals may be better achieved by implementing sustainable forest management practices across all ownerships and involving all stakeholders and the broader community.     

More than just indicators: A review of tropical butterfly ecology and conservation

Roughly 90% of butterfly species live in the tropics. Despite this, we know very little about tropical butterfly ecology particularly when compared to temperate butterfly systems. The relative scarcity of data on tropical butterfly populations hampers our ability to effectively conserve them. In this review we summarize recurring themes from ecological research on tropical butterflies to serve as a framework for understanding their conservation. Key themes include: (1) the tropics represent the evolutionary origins of butterfly diversity, (2) while some tropical butterflies exhibit relatively stable population dynamics, longer-lived adult stages, and more continuous age-specific reproduction compared to temperate zone species, the generality of these patterns is debatable, and (3) complex species interactions (e.g. mimicry, parasitism and predation) can have significantly greater influences on ecological and evolutionary processes in tropical butterflies than in temperate ones. This state of ecological knowledge, combined with scarce resources, has traditionally constrained tropical butterfly conservation efforts to habitat level approaches, unlike the species- and population-specific approaches familiar in North America and Europe. Consequently, much conservation research on butterflies in the tropics has focused on the relationship between habitat quality (e.g. forest fragmentation) and butterfly diversity, though predictive patterns even in this regard remain elusive. We argue that with the increasing threats of habitat destruction, fragmentation and climate change, it is necessary to move beyond this diversity and habitat relationship if we are to improve predictive capabilities when evaluating anthropogenic impacts on tropical butterfly communities. Tropical butterflies are more than just useful indicator species. They represent some of the most spectacular and visually appealing organisms in the world and play many vital roles in tropical ecosystems. We hope that this synthesis will lay the groundwork for future ecological studies of tropical butterfly populations, species, communities and conservation.     

不同类型植被的水土保持与涵养水源能力的探讨——以小良热带人工林为例

本文通过对小良热带人工阔叶混交林、桉林、光坡地的地表径流、水土流失、土壤含水量、地下水位的研究，探讨不同植被的水土保持与涵养水源能力的关系，对热带地区侵蚀地治理的植物配置具有指导意义。     

Conserving Africa’s rain forests: problems in protected areas and possible solutions

Problems and correlates of success in the conservation of Africa’s rain forests were evaluated for 16 protected areas in 11 countries, representing approximately half of all protected areas in this biome. Data were obtained from questionnaires, published and unpublished accounts, and direct observations. Despite numerous problems, all protected areas conserved indigenous rain forest biodiversity more effectively than did alternative land uses. More than half the protected areas suffered extensive ecological isolation. Effective management of protected areas was seriously compromised by inadequate funding and government support. Dense human populations, often resulting from immigration, constituted major threats to protected areas. Perceived conservation success was greatest for large protected areas surrounded by similar habitat with strong public support, effective law enforcement, low human population densities, and substantial support from international donors. Contrary to expectations, protected area success was not directly correlated with employment benefits for the neighboring community, conservation education, conservation clubs, or with the presence and extent of integrated conservation and development programs. Studies are needed to better understand what shapes positive pubic attitude towards protected areas because none of the conventional public outreach programs were correlated with public attitude. We also identify apparent deficiencies in foreign assistance to these protected areas. The single most important short-term strategy was considered to be the improvement of law enforcement effectiveness through greater technical and financial support. Nine medium-term strategies are identified, including provision of adequate and secure long-term funding, establishing research and monitoring programs, and developing more appropriate conservation and development programs. Long-term strategies deal with two ultimate causal factors, mainly attitudes and value systems, and stabilizing human populations. Future success of Africa’s protected areas is contingent upon long-term international assistance including contingencies mandating realistic performance standards.     

Conservation of beetles in boreal pine forests: the effects of forest age and naturalness on species assemblages

The effort of boreal forest conservation has emphasised the preservation of old-growth forests while the role of young successional stages in maintaining biodiversity has remained largely unstudied. We compared the richness of beetle species and composition of species assemblages between managed and seminatural forests in five stages of forest succession. The sites were in boreal sub-xeric pine-dominated forests in eastern Finland. Seminatural study sites, especially the recently burned sites, were important habitats for threatened and near-threatened species. We propose that young stages of natural succession should be included in the network of protected forest areas. On the other hand, the composition of saproxylic species assemblages in seminatural forests differed from the assemblages in managed forests, indicating also the need to improve the forest management guidelines so that they better address the requirements of species protection. Regeneration methods applied should resemble or mimic the natural disturbances more closely.