Potential habitat connectivity of European bison (Bison bonasus) in the Carpathians

Habitat connectivity is important for the survival of species that occupy habitat patches too small to sustain an isolated population. A prominent example of such a species is the European bison (Bison bonasus), occurring only in small, isolated herds, and whose survival will depend on establishing larger, well-connected populations. Our goal here was to assess habitat connectivity of European bison in the Carpathians. We used an existing bison habitat suitability map and data on dispersal barriers to derive cost surfaces, representing the ability of bison to move across the landscape, and to delineate potential connections (as least-cost paths) between currently occupied and potential habitat patches. Graph theory tools were then employed to evaluate the connectivity of all potential habitat patches and their relative importance in the network. Our analysis showed that existing bison herds in Ukraine are isolated. However, we identified several groups of well-connected habitat patches in the Carpathians which could host a large population of European bison. Our analysis also located important dispersal corridors connecting existing herds, and several promising locations for future reintroductions (especially in the Eastern Carpathians) that should have a high priority for conservation efforts. In general, our approach indicates the most important elements within a landscape mosaic for providing and maintaining the overall connectivity of different habitat networks and thus offers a robust and powerful tool for conservation planning.     

Management of Yellowstone bison and brucellosis transmission risk – Implications for conservation and restoration

Yellowstone bison (Bison bison bison) are managed to reduce the risk of brucellosis (Brucella abortus) transmission to cattle while allowing some migration out of Yellowstone National Park to winter ranges in Montana. Intensive management near conservation area boundaries maintained separation between bison and cattle, with no transmission of brucellosis. However, brucellosis prevalence in the bison population was not reduced and the management plan underestimated bison abundance, distribution, and migration, which contributed to larger risk management culls (total >3000 bison) than anticipated. Culls differentially affected breeding herds and altered gender structure, created reduced female cohorts, and dampened productivity. The ecological future of plains bison could be significantly enhanced by resolving issues of disease and social tolerance for Yellowstone bison so that their unique wild state and adaptive capabilities can be used to synergize the restoration of the species. We recommend several adaptive management adjustments that could be implemented to enhance the conservation of plains bison and reduce brucellosis infection. These findings and recommendations are pertinent to wood bison (Bison bison athabascae), European bison (Bison bonasus), and other large ungulates worldwide that are managed using best practices within a risk framework.     

Constraints for re-establishing a meta-population of the European bison in Ukraine

The European bison Bison bonasus had been extirpated from the present territory of Ukraine by late 18th century. Since its restitution initiated in mid-sixties of the 20th century, seven bison herds occur in lowlands, and four along the Ukrainian Carpathians. Initial genetic structure of a herd has been evaluated on the basis of pedigree records on founder animals available for seven herds. Low bison numbers in particular herds, and considerable distances among their home ranges, do not create favourable conditions for further development of the population and natural gene exchange. Due to limited natural linkage among present bison ranges, and impenetrable barriers fragmenting lowland Ukraine, the establishment of a viable meta-population would require an active population management including the monitoring of its genetic structure, enrichment of gene pool through exchange of animals among herds, and facilitation of contacts with free ranging bison in neighbouring countries - Byelorussia, Poland and Romania.     

Second chance for the plains bison

Before European settlement the plains bison (Bison bison bison) numbered in the tens of millions across most of the temperate region of North America. Within the span of a few decades during the mid- to late-1800s its numbers were reduced by hunting and other factors to a few hundred. The plight of the plains bison led to one of the first major movements in North America to save an endangered species. A few individuals and the American Bison Society rescued the remaining animals. Attempts to hybridize cattle and bison when bison numbers were low resulted in extensive cattle gene introgression in bison. Today, though approximately 500,000 plains bison exist in North America, few are free of cattle gene introgression, 96% are subject to anthropogenic selection for commodity production, and only 4% are in herds managed primarily for conservation purposes. Small herd size, artificial selection, cattle-gene introgression, and other factors threaten the diversity and integrity of the bison genome. In addition, the bison is for all practical purposes ecologically extinct across its former range, with multiple consequences for grassland biodiversity. Urgent measures are needed to conserve the wild bison genome and to restore the ecological role of bison in grassland ecosystems. Socioeconomic trends in the Great Plains, combined with new information about bison conservation needs and new conservation initiatives by both the public and public sectors, have set the stage for significant progress in bison conservation over the next few years.     

Population viability analysis of European bison populations in Polish and Belarusian parts of Bia?owie?a Forest with and without gene exchange

European bison (Bison bonasus) became extinct in the wild at the beginning of the 20th century. The contemporary Lowland line of bison was founded by seven individuals that survived in captivity. The largest population of Lowland bison live in the Bia?owie?a Forest, but the forest and the population are divided by a border fence between Poland and Belarus. This fence is a barrier to the movement of ungulates. In this study, we used population genetic models to predict the future viability of the Polish and Belarusian bison populations. We determined the founder contribution, founder equivalent, mean inbreeding coefficient, mean kinship, and the proportion of genetic diversity retained in the Belarusian bison population. Although the founding group of the Belarusian population was larger than that of the Polish population, the latter had more favourable genetic parameters. We assessed inbreeding depression for fecundity in free-ranging European bison compared to captive individuals. Using population viability analysis (PVA) we modelled both bison populations with or without gene exchange, and with or without incorporating the kinship of the founders. When founder kinship was included, in both populations the mean number of alleles and the gene diversity retained within extant populations decreased substantially compared to PVA models in which founders were not related. The worst genetic parameters were obtained for the Belarusian population under a scenario in which the founders are related and gene exchange is lacking, which is the closest to the real situation. Creation of passages for animals by partial removal of the border fence would have a favourable effect on the genetic variation and viability of both bison populations, especially the Belarusian.     

Building large-scale spatially explicit models to predict the distribution of suitable habitat patches for the Greater rhea (Rhea americana), a near-threatened species

We developed large-scale spatially explicit models to predict the distribution of suitable habitat patches for the Greater rhea (Rhea americana), a near-threatened species, in two areas of central Argentina with different land use: a grassland area (ca. 4943 km²) mainly devoted to cattle grazing and an agro-ecosystem area (ca. 4006 km²) mostly used for crop production. The models were developed using logistic regression and were based on current records of Greater rhea occurrence coupled with remote sensing data, including land cover and human presence variables. The habitat suitability maps generated were used to predict the suitable habitat patch structure for wild rhea populations in each area. Fifty-one percent of the total grassland area was suitable for the species, being represented by a single large patch that included 62% of the individual locations. In the agro-ecosystem, only 28% of the total area was suitable, which was distributed among four patches. Seventy percent of rhea observations were in suitable habitat, with all rheas grouped in the largest patch. Conservation efforts for preserving wild rhea populations should be focused on maintaining habitats similar to grasslands, which are less profitable for landowners at present. Consequently, the protection of the pampas grasslands, a key habitat for this species as well as for others with similar habitat requirements, will demand strong conservation actions through the reconciliation of interests between producers and conservationists, since the proportion of croplands is increasing.     

Habitat selection by the common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in disturbed environments: Implications for the conservation of a ‘common’ species

The construction of habitat models is a repeatable technique for describing and mapping species distributions, the utility of which lies in enabling management to predict where a species is likely to occur within a landscape. Typically, habitat models have been used to establish habitat requirements for threatened species; however they have equal applicability for modelling local populations of common species. Often, few data exist on local populations of common species, and issues of abundance and habitat selection at varying scales are rarely addressed. We provide a habitat suitability model for the common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in southern New South Wales. This species is currently perceived as abundant throughout its extensive range across temperate regions of eastern Australia, yet little factual survey data exist and populations appear under threat. We use wombat burrows to reflect habitat selection and as our basis for ecological modelling. We found that environmental variables representing proximity to cover, measures of vegetation and proximity to watercourses are important predictors of burrow presence. Extrapolation of habitat models identified an abundance of habitat suitable for burrows. However, burrows in many suitable areas were abandoned. Our estimate of the population size was similar to the total annual mortality associated with road-kill. Theoretically, given the availability of suitable habitat, common wombat populations in the region should be thriving. It seems likely that this area once supported a much higher number of wombats; however limiting factors such as road mortality and disease have reduced the populations. The persistence of wombats in the study region must be supported by migration from other populations. Our findings challenge the perception that wombats are currently common and not in need of monitoring, suggesting that perceptions of abundance are often clouded by socio-political motives rather than informed by biological and ecological factors.     

The decline of Cantabrian capercaillie: How much does habitat configuration matter?

The endangered Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) has undergone a severe decline during recent decades. Capercaillies require large tracts of mature forest, and are thus sensitive to landscape-level habitat alteration. The high degree of fragmentation and anthropogenic disturbances in the habitat of Cantabrian capercaillie suggested that habitat patterns may be related to the population decline. To evaluate this we developed predictive habitat suitability models. We used a geographic information system (GIS) to integrate environmental variables and spatial context into two logistic models, comparing (a) presence vs. pseudo-absence habitat units (General model) and (b) presence vs. abandoned habitat units (Decline model). We obtained low overall habitat suitability and poor connectivity between high-suitability areas. We found evidence that habitat suitability is indirectly related to the process of population decline, and that the relationship between capercaillie presence and habitat configuration goes beyond the local spatial scale and the average size of forest fragments. We suggest that the combination of these two modelling procedures provides a deeper insight into the decline process, differentiating overall optimal and suboptimal areas (General model) and predicting the direction of eventual local extinctions (Decline model).     

Metapopulation dynamics and conservation of the marsh fritillary butterfly: Population viability analysis and management options for a critically endangered species in Western Europe

This study investigates the dynamics and viability of a marsh fritillary butterfly Euphydryas aurinia metapopulation in a Belgian successional landscape. Based on capture-mark-recapture and winter nest census data, we first estimated demography (survival and recruitment rates, population size, density dependence) and dispersal parameters (emigration rate, effect of patch connectivity on dispersal, mortality during dispersal). Then using RAMAS/GIS platform, we parameterised a population viability analysis (PVA) model with these parameters to simulate the future of this metapopulation under different scenarios.The metapopulation does not seem viable even if natural reforestation is controlled by adequate management. In its present state, the patch system is not able to sustain enough individuals: due to the large temporal fluctuations in demographic parameters, a carrying capacity far higher than currently would be necessary to limit extinction risk to 1%, suggesting the existence of an extinction debt for the species in Belgium. The situation of E. aurinia appears much worse compared to two other fritillary species threatened in Belgium, for which similar PVA are available. It is therefore urgent to increase the carrying capacity of the patch system. How and where it is achieved are of secondary importance for the gain in viability: improvement of habitat quality through restoration, or increase of habitat quantity via enlargement of existing patches and/or creation of new habitat in the matrix. A regime of management based on regular re-opening and maintenance of habitat patches may be the only guarantee of long-term persistence for this critically endangered species in Belgium.     

Spatial population structure of the Cabrera vole in Mediterranean farmland: The relative role of patch and matrix effects

There is mounting evidence that both patch networks and the intervening matrix influence species persistence in fragmented landscapes, though the relative importance of each of these factors in determining spatial population structure remains poorly understood. This study examined this issue using a three-year data set on the distribution of Cabrera voles (Microtus cabrerae) in Mediterranean farmland. The spatial pattern appeared consistent with a metapopulation structure, as voles occupied discrete tall herb patches scattered across the agricultural landscape, where local extinctions and colonizations induced temporal changes in occupancy patterns. Patch dynamics determined deviations from classical metapopulation assumptions, with over half the extinctions resulting from agricultural disturbance or vegetation succession, and recolonizations often occurring after the recovery of suitable habitat conditions sometime after disturbance. Occupancy in undisturbed patches was more stable, with vole occurrence in one year strongly reflecting that in the previous year. Overall, occupancy increased with both patch size and connectivity, but the unique contribution of patch variables to explain variation in vole occurrence was far smaller than that of matrix attributes. Voles occurred more often in patches surrounded by natural pastures, while prevalence declined with increasing cover by shrubland, pine plantations, improved pastures and grazed cropland. It is hypothesised that unfavourable land uses may increase the effective isolation of habitat patches through increased predation risk of dispersing voles. Conservation of the Cabrera vole in Mediterranean farmland should thus strive to maintain lightly grazed fields surrounding well-connected networks of suitable habitat patches.     

Regional conservation priorities for a large predator: golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in the Alpine range

We compared the density of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and their nest dispersion, productivity and diet in Alpine and pre-Alpine areas. The comparison was made at two spatial scales: (1) at the territory level within two contiguous populations, and (2) at the population level, using published data for 22 populations scattered across four countries (France, Switzerland, Germany and Italy). Availability of golden eagle's main prey species was higher in Alpine than in pre-Alpine regions. The potential foraging ranges of pairs of eagles in the pre-Alps had larger amounts of woodland and lower amounts of suitable foraging habitat than those of Alpine pairs. At both spatial scales, density and productivity were lower in the pre-Alps. Also, pre-Alpine populations were characterised by a lower percentage of main prey species in the diet, which was significantly correlated with productivity, and by a higher breadth of diet, which was negatively correlated with density. Overall, higher prey availability and habitat suitability in the Alps resulted in higher density and breeding success, in a manner compatible with theoretical metapopulation models. We suggest that priority be given to conservation of eagle populations in high quality Alpine habitat, and that conservation action be carried out by a mixture of site-protection measures and conservation of the wider environment.     

Modelling habitat suitability of the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) in the coastal heathlands of southern Victoria, Australia

In recent years, predictive habitat distribution models, derived by combining multivariate statistical analyses with Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, have been recognised for their utility in conservation planning. The size and spatial arrangement of suitable habitat can influence the long-term persistence of some faunal species. In southwestern Victoria, Australia, populations of the rare swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) are threatened by further fragmentation of suitable habitat. In the current study, a spatially explicit habitat suitability model was developed for A. minimus that incorporated a measure of vegetation structure. Models were generated using logistic regression with species presence or absence as the dependent variable and landscape variables, extracted from both GIS data layers and multi-spectral digital imagery, as the predictors. The most parsimonious model, based on the Akaike Information Criterion, was spatially extrapolated in the GIS. Probability of species presence was used as an index of habitat suitability. A negative association between A. minimus presence and both elevation and habitat complexity was evidenced, suggesting a preference for relatively low altitudes and a vegetation structure of low vertical complexity. The predictive performance of the selected model was shown to be high (91%), indicating a good fit of the model to the data. The proportion of the study area predicted as suitable habitat for A. minimus (Probability of occurrence ?0.5) was 11.7%. Habitat suitability maps not only provide baseline information about the spatial arrangement of potentially suitable habitat for a species, but they also help to refine the search for other populations, making them an important conservation tool.     

Using ecological niche modelling to infer past, present and future environmental suitability for Leiopelma hochstetteri, an endangered New Zealand native frog

Leiopelma hochstetteri is an endangered New Zealand frog now confined to isolated populations scattered across the North Island. A better understanding of its past, current and predicted future environmental suitability will contribute to its conservation which is in jeopardy due to human activities, feral predators, disease and climate change. Here we use ecological niche modelling with all known occurrence data (N = 1708) and six determinant environmental variables to elucidate current, pre-human and future environmental suitability of this species. Comparison among independent runs, subfossil records and a clamping method allow validation of models. Many areas identified as currently suitable do not host any known populations. This apparent discrepancy could be explained by several non exclusive hypotheses: the areas have not been adequately surveyed and undiscovered populations still remain, the model is over simplistic; the species’ sensitivity to fragmentation and small population size; biotic interactions; historical events. An additional outcome is that apparently suitable, but frog-less areas could be targeted for future translocations. Surprisingly, pre-human conditions do not differ markedly highlighting the possibility that the range of the species was broadly fragmented before human arrival. Nevertheless, some populations, particularly on the west of the North Island may have disappeared as a result of human mediated habitat modification. Future conditions are marked with higher temperatures, which are predicted to be favourable to the species. However, such virtual gain in suitable range will probably not benefit the species given the highly fragmented nature of existing habitat and the low dispersal ability of this species.     

Ensemble models of habitat suitability relate chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) conservation to forest and landscape dynamics in Western Africa

Pan troglodytes verus is considered one of the most endangered primates in the world due to habitat loss or degradation, and it is considered extinct in several regions of West-Africa. This study aims at developing a model that predicts habitat suitability for chimpanzee under different land cover scenarios and supports a multi-temporal analysis of the recent habitat evolution in southern Guinea-Bissau. The model, built using a maximum entropy framework, is spatially explicit, uses eco-geographic variables derived from landscape compositional, structural and functional attributes, and is based on nest location data collected in the field. The results show that the developed model has good levels of reliability and the map produced through its application reveals a current extension of 752 km² of adequate habitat in a 2723 km² study area. Forest related EGVs (ecogeographical variables) had the higher importance for the model production. Habitat suitability maps produced for three dates in the last three decades show that there has been a marked decrease in habitat extension and in connectivity to neighbouring regions. We analyse the implications of these results in possible strategies for the conservation of chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau.     

Habitat succession, hardwood encroachment and raccoons as limiting factors for Lower Keys marsh rabbits

The Lower Keys marsh rabbit (LKMR, Sylvilagus palustris hefneri), a marsh rabbit subspecies endemic to the Lower Keys, Florida was protected in 1990, however, populations continue to decline despite recovery efforts. We hypothesized on-going habitat loss and fragmentation due to succession and hardwood encroachment has lead to increased edge, reduced habitat quality, and increased activity by native raccoons (Procyon lotor). These factors reduce the suitability of patches in a later successional state, thus threatening LKMR recovery and metapopulation persistence. We surveyed 150 LKMR patches in 2008, tallying adult and juvenile rabbit pellets, estimating measures of habitat succession and quality (woody and herbaceous ground cover, distribution of herbaceous species) and recording raccoon activity (number of raccoon signs). We calculated patch edge (patch shape index) using ArcGIS. We evaluated the relationship between patch and habitat attributes and LKMR using regression analysis and model selection. We found both adult and juvenile LKMR pellet counts were lower in patches with higher shape indices and higher in patches with greater occurrence of bunchgrasses and forbs. We also found adult LKMR pellet counts were lower in patches with higher raccoon activity. Our results suggest patch edge, habitat succession and quality, and raccoons pose a threat to the persistence and recovery of LKMR populations. Recovery efforts should focus on reducing these trends through habitat management and raccoon removal implemented in carefully controlled experiments with proper monitoring. Measures of patch and habitat attributes important to LKMR should be incorporated into long-term metapopulation monitoring and used to evaluate recovery actions.     

Habitat relations of Rhea americana in an agroecosystem of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina

The maintenance of wild populations of Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) through effective management requires an understanding of their habitat requirements in terms of vegetation composition and field configuration. We studied the relative influence of some anthropogenic variables (presence of route, house and fences) and resource variables (presence of water source, composition and coverage of plant species, vegetation height and bare soil), on the habitat use by a population of rheas in a cattle ranch of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Habitat use was determined indirectly by documenting the number of faeces in summer, autumn-winter and spring 1999. The presence or absence of faeces was related to the measured variables through discriminant analysis that allowed the elaboration of predictive models of habitat use by this species. Contrary to what was expected, those variables related to human activity showed a low predictive value on the habitat use by rheas when compared with resource variables. Rheas preferentially selected the stream area in all seasons and sites with great percent cover of Bupleurum sp., Phyla canescens, Sida leprosa, Plantago lanceolata, Trifolium repens, Lolium multiflorum, Stipa spp., and Stenotaphrum secundatum. Low vegetation height was another important component of rhea's habitat in summer and autumn-winter. The high accuracy level obtained by validation tests of this model supports its utility for the management of rhea populations in other cattle ranches of the region, and to analyze the suitability of other ranches for reintroduction programs.     

Wild-captive metapopulation viability analysis

We developed an interactive management model for wild and captive populations of the ploughshare tortoise or angonoka, Geochelone yniphora. Interactive management is based on the translocation of individuals between wild and captive populations to simulate a metapopulation. Demographic parameters of one captive and two wild populations of this rare tortoise were used to conduct a metapopulation viability analysis (MVA). The effectiveness of the conservation strategy proposed for this species was then evaluated by modifying the probability of extinction and growth of the metapopulation over a fixed period of time. Several alternative scenarios of interactive management were then tested and ranked in terms of their effect on the viability of the metapopulation. The model predicted that catastrophic events such as bush fires would likely have a negative effect on the future of remaining wild populations. However, the model also predicted that the use of captive-born offspring to establish additional wild populations would decrease the risk of extinction of the metapopulation as a whole. We believe that, when supported by sound knowledge of the demographic parameters of a species, the use of MVA as part of an interactive management program can be an effective conservation tool that allows assessment of the probable response of both captive and wild populations to different management alternatives. One of the most interesting aspects of this interactive management approach is the link between in situ and ex situ conservation.     

Lynx reintroductions in fragmented landscapes of Germany: Projects with a future or misunderstood wildlife conservation?

Eurasian lynx are slowly recovering in Germany after an absence of about 100 years, and additional reintroduction programs have been launched. However, suitable habitat is patchily distributed in Germany, and whether patches could host a viable population or contribute to the potential spread of lynx is uncertain. We combined demographic scenarios with a spatially explicit population simulation model to evaluate the viability and colonization success of lynx in the different patches, the aim being to conclude guidelines for reintroductions. The spatial basis of our model is a validated habitat model for the lynx in Germany. The dispersal module stems from a calibrated dispersal model, while the demographic module uses plausible published information on the lynx’ life history. The results indicate that (1) a viable population is possible, but that (2) source patches are not interconnected except along the German-Czech border, and that (3) from a demographic viewpoint at least 10 females and 5 males are required for a start that will develop into a viable population with an extinction probability of less than 5% in 50 years. The survival rate of resident adults was the most sensitive parameter, and the best management strategy for the success of reintroduction would be to reduce the mortality of residents in the source patches. Nevertheless, the extremely low probability of connectivity between suitable patches makes most of the reintroduction plans isolated efforts, and they are therefore questionable in the long run. With such a model, the suitability of the single habitat patches can be assessed and the most appropriate management scheme applied. This study shows that simulation models are useful tools for establishing the comparative effectiveness of reintroduction plans aimed at increasing the viability of the species.     

Farmer attitudes toward wolves: Implications for the role of predators in managing disease

The potential for disease transmission between wild and domestic animals may interfere with wildlife and habitat conservation on lands surrounding protected areas. Recently, possible transmission of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) from wild ungulates to domestic livestock has affected the Riding Mountain National Park region in Manitoba, Canada. Wolf (Canis lupus) predation on ungulate populations may help lessen the risk of disease transmission to livestock. We conducted an exploratory analysis of causal factors associated with farmer attitudes toward observing wolves on their farms. A survey to 4 220 farms within 50 km of the Park resulted in an adjusted response rate of 25%. We constructed several logistic regression models with factors hypothesized to influence whether farmers agreed with the statement “I enjoy seeing wolves on my land”, and three candidate models received reasonable support. Factors most affecting attitudes were, in order of importance, perceived wolf population size, frequency of seeing wolves, perceived seriousness of wolf damage, distance to Park boundary and number of beef cattle (Bos taurus) owned. The factors least influential on attitudes were education and age. Concern over bovine tuberculosis in wild elk also had minimal influence. Of respondents who perceived the wolf population as “too high”, 60% were extremely concerned about bovine tuberculosis in wild elk. Although the role of wolf predation as a potential natural regulator of disease in wild ungulates might not be widely recognized in many areas, we believe this provides a unique opportunity to re-examine the significance of maintaining viable wolf populations.     

The effects of land use and climate on red kite distribution in the Iberian peninsula

The main breeding populations of the red kite (Milvus milvus L.), have been declining in the Iberian peninsula during the last decade. However, there is a lack of regional assessments of habitat suitability that identifies limiting ecological factors for the species and areas with conservation problems. In this work we present a regional model for the distribution and abundance of breeding red kites in the Iberian peninsula. The occurrence and estimated abundance in 100 km² UTM squares resulting from road censuses were modelled with broad-scale explanatory variables obtained from satellite imagery, thematic digital cartography, climatic data and spatial coordinates. The occurrence model incorporated mainly climatic variables and had a good discrimination ability, while the abundance model incorporated mainly land-use variables and had a lower explanatory power (r²=0.14). The predictions somewhat overestimated the results of the censuses, and this agrees with the decline of population size and range observed for this species in the Iberian peninsula. These models are relevant in the conservation of the species: first, they suggest the limiting factors for red kite in the Iberian peninsula, and, second, they generate predictive maps pointing out both areas in which conservation problems may be acute (suitable locations that are unoccupied), and areas where no data is available but the red kite is likely to be present (thus guiding further survey and research).