Patterns of lesions of bovine tuberculosis in wild red deer and wild boar

The data obtained from a survey of Mycobacterium bovis infection in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) conducted in France in the 2005/06 hunting season were used to describe and quantify the pathological findings in the two species. The red deer had caseous abscessed lesions in their organs and lymph nodes, whereas in the wild boar the lesions were predominantly caseocalcareous and occurred mainly in the lymph nodes. The severity of the gross tuberculosis-like lesions was estimated on the basis of a numerical score. The significant difference between the distribution of the scores in the two species indicated that the disease was more serious in the red deer than in the wild boar. Unlike the red deer, the wild boar did not show a generalised pattern of disease. Among the lymph nodes examined systematically, gross lesions were most frequently observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes in the red deer and in the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in the wild boar. In both species, the presence of gross lesions showed the closest agreement with the isolation of M bovis from the same lymph nodes. The different patterns of the lesions of tuberculosis in the two species suggest that red deer might play an important role in the intraspecies and interspecies dissemination of the infection, whereas in wild boar the spread of the infection would be more likely to be restricted to other wild boar.     

Urolithiasis in a wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) population

Renal calculi were found in eight of 325 red deer kidney pairs examined, all eight were females and only one was infected in both kidneys. A further three deer badly infected with urolithiasis were found by chance, two were males. Examples of the calculi found are illustrated to show their range of sizes and shapes. One calculus analysed for chemical composition comprised predominantly calcium carbonate.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in wild red deer, roe deer, moose, and reindeer from Norway

Serum samples from 4339 wild cervids collected in Norway were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii using the direct agglutination test. The association between seroprevalence and species, sex, age, and geographic region was investigated. Positive titers (> or =1:40) were found in 33.9% of 760 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); 12.6% of 2142 moose (Alces alces); 7.7% of 571 red deer (Cervus elaphus); and 1.0% of 866 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The seroprevalences were significantly different between the species. There was a significant increase in prevalence with age in roe deer, moose, and red deer, except from yearling to adult in red deer. A significant age-sex interaction was found in moose, and the effect of age was most distinct for females. No association between seropositive animals and sex was found for roe deer and red deer. There were significant differences in prevalence between geographic regions in roe deer and male moose. A widespread exposure to T. gondii in Norwegian cervids is documented, and meat from Norwegian cervids, particularly roe deer, should be regarded a potential source of infection for humans.     

BTV infection in wild ruminants, with emphasis on red deer: a review

The distribution of bluetongue virus has changed, possibly related to climate change. Vaccination of domestic ruminants is taking place throughout Europe to control BT expansion. The high density of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) in some European regions has raised concerns about the potential role that unvaccinated European wild ungulates might play in maintaining or spreading the virus. Most species of wild ruminants are susceptible to BTV infection, although frequently asymptomatically. The red deer population density in Europe is similar to that of domestic livestock in some areas, and red deer could account for a significant percentage of the BTV-infection susceptible ruminant population in certain regions. High serum antibody prevalence has been found in red deer, and BTV RNA (BTV-1, BTV-4 and BTV-8) has been repeatedly detected in naturally infected European red deer by means of RT-PCR. Moreover, red deer may carry the virus asymptomatically for long periods. Epidemiological studies suggest that there are more BT cases in domestic ungulates in those areas where red deer are present. Vector and host density and environmental factors are implicated in the spatial distribution of BT. As in domestic ruminants, BTV transmission among wild ruminants depends almost exclusively on Culicoides vectors, mainly C. imicola but also members of the C. obsoletus and C. pulicaris complex. However, BTV transmission from red deer to the vector remains to be demonstrated. Transplacental, oral, and mechanical transmissions are also suspected. Thus, wild red deer contribute to the still unclear epidemiology of BTV in Europe, and could complicate BTV control in domestic ruminants. However, further research at the wildlife host-vector-pathogen interface and regarding the epidemiology of BT and BT vectors in wildlife habitats is needed to confirm this hypothesis. Moreover, red deer could be used as BT sentinels. Serum and spleen tissue of calves sampled from late autumn onwards should be the target samples when establishing a BTV surveillance program.     

Survey of permanent wound tracts in the carcases of culled wild red deer in Scotland

The number and sites of permanent wound tracts in the carcases of 943 wild culled red deer (Cervus elaphus) were recorded. During the peak period of the red deer rut there was a significant increase in the number of these tracts in the carcases, which was associated with a decrease from 89 per cent to 71 per cent in the probability of the first permanent wound tract also being the last (the terminal probability). There were significantly more permanent wound tracts in the carcases of one group (predominantly males) than in a second group (predominantly females and calves). In carcases with a single tract in the trunk, in which the heart and lungs were also examined, 80 per cent had tracts involving the heart and/or lungs, the recommended thoracic target organs. Tracts involving vital structures in the neck were also common, with 15.3 per cent of the carcases with a single permanent tract having damage limited to cervical structures.     

Modelling transmission of bovine tuberculosis in red deer and wild boar in Normandy, France

In early 2001, Mycobacterium bovis infection was confirmed in red deer (RD) (Cervus elaphus) shot in Normandy region, France. An epidemiological survey conducted during the following hunting season in two connected forests confirmed the occurrence of the disease in both free-ranging RD and wild boar (WB) (Sus scrofa). This was the first detected bovine tuberculosis outbreak in wildlife in France. We present a simple deterministic age-structured model of the within- and between-species M.?bovis transmission in RD and WB populations that distinguishes direct transmission (horizontal and pseudo-vertical) and indirect transmission through contaminated offal left behind by hunters. Results issued from the epidemiological surveys conducted in Normandy forests were used to estimate transmission parameters. Because data for RD and WB populations were not available, population sizes at demographic equilibrium were estimated and used to run the model. We qualitatively tested different control measure scenarios with our model, considering different mortality rates and offal harvesting, to determine which ones affect the success of infection control. The most realistic control scenario would combine the total depopulation of RD and good compliance with offal harvesting, because the model suggests that infected offal left by hunters represents the main transmission source of M.?bovis in the field.     

Gastrointestinal parasites in an isolated Norwegian population of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Background

Thirteen red deer (Cervus elaphus), culled from the isolated population at the Mongstad Oil Refinery, Norway, were investigated for gastrointestinal helminths. These animals, enclosed by the refinery fence, do not have contact with other ruminants and have a high population density considering the available browsing area (1 km²) within the refinery site (3 km²). The population was estimated to be 110-130 at the time of culling.

Results

The helminth fauna among these sampled red deer was enumerated and species were identified based on morphology. Ostertagia leptospicularis/O. kolchida was detected in 83% [CI 55 - 95%], Spiculopteragia spiculoptera/S. mathevossiani in 92% [CI 65 - 99%] and Trichostrongylus axei in 42%, [CI 19 - 68%] of the abomasa examined. Characterisation of the intestinal parasite fauna revealed Capillaria bovis, Cooperia oncophora, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Trichuris globulosa and tapeworm fragments (presumed anoplocephalids) in seven individuals. Only one calf had an infection with more than one intestinal helminth (tapeworm fragment and Trichuris globulosa). The remaining six deer had single species intestinal infections.No significant age related trends were seen, with the exception of higher intensity of infection of T. axei in yearlings relative to other age classes. Assessment of abomasal parasite burden and body condition revealed no significant trends. In calves, statistically non-significant correlation was seen between increased parasite burden and decreased slaughter weight, whilst the opposite was seen in adults with the heaviest adults exhibiting the higher burdens. Given the small sample size the trends that were seen need further investigation. The parasite burden was aggregated with three adult red deer harbouring 75% of the total abomasal parasite count.

Conclusion

This isolated population was parasitised by a reduced subset of gastrointestinal nematodes typical of this cervid across an extensive geographic range in Eurasia. The intensity and abundance of abomasal nematodes was higher in this isolated population than reported in similar studies of red deer populations across Europe.     

Keratitis in red deer

Twenty-five of 40 red deer (Cervus elaphus) exhibited corneal opacities and ulceration resembling mild bovine infectious keratitis. Attempts to incriminate either a bacterial or viral causal agent were unsuccessful.

Subconjunctival injections of a penicillin/streptomycin mixture were administered in both eyes of affected and in-contact animals. Resolution over an 8 week period was uneventful.     

Prevalence of 'head shooting' and the characteristics of the wounds in culled wild Scottish red deer

The carcases of 230 wild, culled red deer (Cervus elaphus) were examined for the presence of bullet wounds and permanent wound tracts to determine the prevalence and significance of wounds involving the head, legs or carcase trunk. Head wounds were found in 17 (7.4 per cent) of the carcases and were classified into two groups: nine in which the marksman was considered to have specifically targeted the head, and eight carcases in which the head wound was considered to have resulted from a ;coup de grace' shot to dispatch a previously wounded animal. The analysis of the wound data from the carcase trunks, in combination with data collected in a previous study, indicates that the initial wound tracts in all the deer appeared to have lower mean terminal probabilities than subsequent wound tracts, and that this effect is exacerbated during the rut.     

甘肃马鹿导入东北马鹿杂交改良试验观察

以东北马鹿为父本．甘肃肃南鹿场人工驯养的甘肃马鹿为母本．进行导血杂交改良试验。结果表明：甘肃马鹿导入东北马鹿杂交改良．其杂交后代初生重、断奶重、周岁重和2～3周岁公鹿产茸量均显著高于本地马鹿。     

Molecular survey on the presence of zoonotic arthropod-borne pathogens in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus)

To estimate the prevalence of some zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in red deer (Cervus elaphus) living in Italian areas with high risk of arthropod exposure, blood samples from 60 red deer were tested by PCR for A. phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, and piroplasms. Thirty-four (56.67%) animals resulted positive for one or more pathogens. In particular, 24 (40%) red deer were positive for A. phagocytophilum, 16 (26.67%) for Babesia divergens, 6 (10%) for C. burnetii, 2 (3.33%) for B. burgdorferi s.l. No positive reaction was observed for F. tularensis. Thirteen (21.67%) animals resulted co-infected by two or three pathogens.Red deer is confirmed as competent reservoir of A. phagocytophilum and B. divergens, but not of B. burgdorferi. This is the first report of C. burnetii-positive red deer in central Italy. Hunters may be at risk of infection both through infected ticks and during the infected cervids carcasses dressing.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and other wild ruminants from Spain

Serum samples from 441 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 161 other wild ruminant species, collected between 1993 and 2005 from six regions of Spain were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies to T. gondii (MAT 1:25 or higher) were detected in 15.6% of red deer. Statistically significant differences were observed among sampling sites with seroprevalence in red deer from Catalonia (42.2%) being significantly higher compared with other Spanish regions (8.7%) (P < 0.05). Statistically significant differences were not observed between T. gondii seroprevalence and sex, age or management of hunting estates (open versus fenced). Seroprevalence of T.gondii infection in other ruminants species was 24% of 79 fallow deer (Dama dama), 21.8% of 33 in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 33.3% of three Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica), 20% of 10 chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica), 10% of 10 barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), and 14.8% of 27 mouflon (Ovis ammon) in areas not including Catalonia, where no samples from these species were available. Serological results indicated a widespread exposure to T. gondii among wildlife in Spain and suggest that consumption of raw or inadequately cooked meat, as well as handling carcasses of wild game, should be taken into account as a source of infection for humans.     

Osteochondrosis associated with copper deficiency in young farmed red deer and wapiti x red deer hybrids

Osteochondrosis is reported in association with copper deficiency in young red deer and wapiti x red deer hybrids on eight deer farms throughout New Zealand. On two farms, more than 30% of fawns were affected. Affected animals were lame, often had one or more swollen joints, and in some cases had an abnormal “bunny-hopping” gait or “cow-hocked” stance. Lesions were most common in the carpal, tarsal, stifle and hip joints, and were usually bilateral. Defects in articular cartilage ranged from loose flaps to complete separation with exposure of subchondral bone and the presence of cartilage fragments within the joint space. In advanced cases, the joints had features of degenerative arthropathy. Bilateral epiphyseolysis of the femoral head was observed in some severely lame deer. All deer with osteochondrosis had low serum and/or liver copper concentrations.