Facing the Challenge of Social Forestry in Japan: The Case of Reviving Harmonious Coexistence Between Forest and People in Okayama Prefecture

Social forestry as a development strategy has evolved since the 1970s, especially in the tropics, to address forest degradation and promote local community development amidst the burgeoning population in these areas. As a practice, however, social forestry has been in place since ancient times in many parts of the world, including Japanese forest communities. Forest-people relationships in Japan drastically changed through massive afforestation programs after the energy source change and with the industrialization of the forest sector in 1950s. The majority of the planted forests are underutilized today and forest communities are marginalized due to the decline of forestry operations, depopulation, and changes in people’s values. Some communities address this concern by inviting potential urban migrants who may be interested in settling in rural areas. Using the case of the Nishiawakura Village in Okayama Prefecture, this paper explores the recent challenges confronting social forestry in Japan. It is found that underutilization of forest resources can be a cause of serious environmental degradation and marginalization of forest communities, and that Nishiawakura’s journey to renew forest management in partnership with migrants is a process of revisiting and creating the forest-people relationship. This study advances two related arguments, namely (1) the interaction of the local people and the migrants brings new perspectives to forest management, and (2) in a community facing depopulation and underutilization of forest resources, social forestry can be an effective approach to rediscover traditional forest management in a new form and revitalize forests and local communities.     

Competing Visions: Domestic Forests, Politics and Forest Policy in the Central Western Ghats of South India

Rural people in developing countries including India continue to access a number of types of ‘forests’ to meet specific needs such as fuelwood, fodder, food, non-timber forest produce and timber for both subsistence and income generation. While a plethora of terms exist to describe the types of forests that rural people use—such as farm forests, social forests, community forests and small-scale forests—the expression domestic forest has recently been proposed. Domestic forest is a term aimed at capturing the diversity of forests transformed and managed by rural communities and a way to introduce a new scientific domain that recognises that production and conservation can be reconciled and that local communities can be effective managers. This paper argues in the context of the central Western Ghats of south India that while the domestic forest concept is a useful umbrella term to capture the diversity of forests used by rural people, these domestic forests are often not autonomous local forests but sites of contestation between local actors and the state forest bureaucracy. Hence, a paradigm shift within the forest bureaucracy will only occur if the scientific forestry community questions its own normative views on forest management and sees forest policy as a means to recognise local claims and support existing practices of forest dependent communities.     

Sustainable Forest Management at the Local Scale: A Comparative Analysis of Community Forests and Domestic Forests in Cameroon

In Cameroon, community forests are frequently presented as a relevant option to increase the welfare of rural populations and simultaneously improve local governance and forest resources conservation. But apart from community forests, rural livelihoods also depend on forest areas, designated as ‘domestic forests’ in this article, where local users enjoy informal customary rights. The specific contributions of community and domestic forests to the evolution of the prevailing socio-ecological system are assessed through a diachronic study of a village which is located in southern Cameroon. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is used to compare the progress of this social-ecological system between January 2008 and December 2009. The overall evolution of livelihoods was found to be positive during that period. In this case study, domestic forests and community forests are based on complementary models, which are often observed in southern Cameroon. Domestic forests constitute the basis of socio-economic development, while community forests might offer opportunities for a local-level carbon sequestration payment mechanism.     

Farm forestry in the black forest southern nature park from a socio-political point of view

In this study the interactions between forest management and the preservation of rural structures, as well as the economic implications should there be a shut-down of silvicultural activities in the small-scale private forestry of the Southern Nature Park of the Black Forest in Germany, are examined. The jobs, which are connected to the production of wood and the quality of the landscape, are characterized and projected on the region as far as possible. The creation of value by owners managing forests for production is demonstrated for the area of investigation. In combination with estimated average monetary values for the infrastructural benefits of the forests, scenarios point out the consequences of management as well as of a shut-down of the smallscale private forests. Finally, the paper explores whether it is it is appropriate to extend the meaning of the term ‘Environmentally Sound Forest Management’ beyond the conventional sense of forest functions, and to an holistic approach which integrates the people as well as forests and other landscape features. If an holistic approach is adopted, a redefined model of the mixed farm forest enterprise, which pursues many targets in the same area, must be developed. In this way, it seems possible to solve conflicts regarding land-use in rural areas and to achieve desirable socio-political development.     

Sustaining family forests in rural landscapes: Rationale,challenges, and an illustration from oregon,USA

Family forests are critical components of rural landscapes, societies and economies. In Oregon, where nonindustrial private forests comprise only 16% of the forestland base, the ecological, social and economic impact of this ownership category is disproportionately large. This is due to the landscape position these lands occupy, the diversification they contribute to forest cover and local economies, and the political and cultural connections they provide to urban populations. The significance of this ownership category is even greater in the United States as a whole, where nonindustrial private forests comprise nearly two-thirds of the commercial forestland base, dominating rural landscapes in many regions of the country. Despite the important role family forests play, their ability to contribute to the wellbeing of rural areas is challenged by several dynamic factors, including industrial consolidation in global wood markets, loss of family forestland to corporate ownership, and parcelization and fragmentation of family forestland at the urban fringe. Moreover, family forestry does not enjoy a strong social contract with the American public, which is largely ignorant of the existence of this ownership class. A foundation of broad social approval and appreciation for family forestry is prerequisite to development of policies which can sustain family forestland ownerships and the contributions they make. This paper draws from recent research in Oregon to argue that, whereas most research on nonindustrial private forests has focused on economics and management at the individual producer level, these challenges demand greater attention to the role of family forests in the wider context of landscape, culture and rural economy.     

Certification of a Community-based Forest Enterprise for Improving Institutional Management and Household Income: A Case from Southeast Sulawesi,Indonesia

Forest certification for community-based forest management was designed to strengthen an area’s forestry functions while simultaneously alleviating poverty by developing the existing community forest. It is fundamental for forest certification to maintain the economic benefits for certified local sellers and balance conservation goals with increasing local incomes. This study explores how FSC certification of a community-based forest enterprise in Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia could improve effectively field situations of community forest management and strengthen local peoples’ financial benefits and social perceptions towards conserving forests. FSC group certification was introduced in the area of teak community forest of several villages in 2005. Because of local strong interest in group certification, the size of certified forests, the number of group certification members and the amount of certified wood harvested gradually increased. The support of a local NGO and an international NGO contributed towards successful establishment of group certification and establishment of a small-scale forestry enterprise producing certified wood in a sustainable manner. These NGOs played important roles in establishing strong relationships between producers and consumers, strengthening local forest management institutions, and promising social and economic benefits to the local people.     

Social Values of Forests and Production of New Goods and Services: The Views of Swedish Family Forest Owners

Forests are considered crucial assets for sustainable rural development, and contemporary forestry is an industry where production, environmental and social goals can—and should—be handled simultaneously. Swedish family forest owners (FFOs) are expected to both manage and conserve their forests for the benefit of the whole country, but there are contradictions between development and conservation and between traditional and alternative forms of utilization representing dilemmas in rural areas. Tensions between urban and rural areas, between demands on what to produce and protect, are often linked to the FFOs’ views on opportunities for forest management. The aim of this study is to identify and analyse the extent to which FFOs perceive that social values have the ability to generate “new” goods and services as a supplement or alternative to traditional forestry, and to suggest how the forests might be managed to render high social values. Fifty-seven interviews were conducted with FFOs (both resident and non-resident). The results indicate that regardless of where they reside, FFOs have a multifunctional view of their forests and forest management, that the social values attached to forests can play an important role in development of local recreation- and forest-based tourism activities, and in this respect they can enhance sustainable rural development. It is, however, not obvious who might start and develop these businesses, since there seems to be a lack of interest among the FFOs themselves.     

高黎贡山西坡大塘村社林业活动研究

村社林业是指在一个具体的村社或农村生态系统内，以农户为主题，旨在解决农户自身生存和发展所需的林业活动，是林业发展的重要组成部分。高黎贡山西坡大塘村农户在社区森林资源管理方面做了有益的尝试，多形式、多内容的林业经营管理活动使该村社区森林资源得到了合理的利用和保护，为周围村社提供了有益的经验。本文以大塘村的各项村社林业活动为例，叙述了广泛开展村社林业活动对高黎贡山森林资源有效保护与周围农村经济持续发展的作用和意义。     

Assessing the sustainability in community based forestry: A case from Nepal

Community based forestry is seen as a promising instrument for sustainable forest management (SFM) through the purposeful involvement of local communities. Globally, forest area managed by local communities is on the rise. However, transferring management responsibilities to forest users alone cannot guarantee the sustainability of forest management. A monitoring tool, that allows the local communities to track the progress of forest management towards the goal of sustainability, is essential. A case study, including six forest user groups (FUGs), two from each three community based forestry models—community forestry (CF), buffer zone community forestry (BZCF), and collaborative forest management (CFM) representing three different physiographic regions, was conducted in Nepal. The study explores which community based forest management model (CF, BZCF or CFM) is doing well in terms of sustainable forest management. The study assesses the overall performance of the three models towards SFM using locally developed criteria (four), indicators (26) and verifiers (60). This paper attempts to quantify the sustainability of the models using sustainability index for individual criteria (SIIC), and overall sustainability index (OSI). In addition, rating to the criteria and scoring of the verifiers by the FUGs were done. Among the four criteria, the FUGs ascribed the highest weightage to institutional framework and governance criterion; followed by economic and social benefits, forest management practices, and extent of forest resources. Similarly, the SIIC was found to be the highest for the institutional framework and governance criterion. The average values of OSI for CFM, CF, and BZCF were 0.48, 0.51 and 0.60 respectively; suggesting that buffer zone community forestry is the more sustainable model among the three. The study also suggested that the SIIC and OSI help local communities to quantify the overall progress of their forestry practices towards sustainability. The indices provided a clear picture of forest management practices to indicate the direction where they are heading in terms of sustainability; and informed the users on issues to pay attention to enhance sustainability of their forests.     

Social Heterogeneity and Community Forestry Processes: Reflections from Forest Users of Dhading District, Nepal

Community forestry has been characterized as a successful model of community-based forest governance in Nepal that shifts forest management and use rights to local users, often socially heterogeneous in caste, gender and wealth status. This heterogeneity forms the basis of social groups, which differ in their needs, priorities and perceptions regarding community forestry implementation processes. This paper explores the dynamics of three community forestry processes—users’ participation, institutional development, and decision-making and benefit-sharing—among forest user groups as perceived by three social groups of forest users—elite, women and disadvantaged—from eight community forests of Dhading district, Nepal, using qualitative and quantitative techniques. It is found that social groups have differing levels of perception about community forestry processes occurring in their user groups. In particular, social elites differ from women and disadvantaged members of the group in users’ participation in community forestry activities and institutional development of forest user groups. An important policy implication of the findings is that social inclusiveness is central to the effective implementation of community forestry processes, not only to safeguard its past successes but also to internalize the economic opportunities it poses through reducing deforestation and forest degradation in the future.     

Progress and prospects of community forestry in developing and developed countries

Community forestry is practiced in various countries throughout the world, with respect to both native forests and plantations, for livelihood and forest protection purposes and also for urban amenity values. While forests have been managed to some extent by communities for thousands of years, modern models of community forestry have been practiced widely for only about 30 years. Community forestry takes many forms; there is no unique definition or categorisation, although a number of characteristics are frequently present. There is in general, involvement of a local community in forest planning as well as management, for a form of forestry which is usually relatively small-scale, motivated by multiple objectives, and receiving some financial support and organisational assistance by government and non-government organisations. Where plantations are established, these may be managed as common property, individual property rights may apply, or there may be a combination of both. Analysis of the specific research studies included in this issue reveals that community forestry systems have been refined over time as experience is gained in program designs, and notable successes have been achieved. However, ‘the jury is still out’ on whether community forestry has lived up to the optimistic expectations of its proponents.     

Effect of the season and forest management on the visual quality of the nature-based tourism environment: a case from Finnish Lapland

The growth of nature-based tourism has raised the need to better understand tourists’ expectations towards outdoor recreation environments. There is little knowledge, however, of international tourists’ attitudes towards forest management practises or of their effect during winter. This study investigated how commercial forests correspond to the environmental expectations of international nature-based tourists and how the season affects tourists’ landscape preferences. Altogether 750 foreign visitors to Finnish Lapland responded to a survey and evaluated photographs presenting various types of forest landscapes in summer and winter. Beautiful scenery was the most important motive for the choice of travel destination and for participating in outdoor recreation. The results highlight the strong impact of seasons on the perceived quality of the landscape in commercial forests. Seasonal differences are largest in regeneration areas as snow cover mitigates the effects of forestry operations. Even-aged, middle-aged and mature forest stands were considered to be suitable for tourism in both summer and winter. There is a demand for adapted management regimes in commercial forests targeting year-round nature-based tourism. In conclusion, forestry and tourism can coexist in the same area with good planning and with management actions that take visual quality and recreational values of the environment into account.     

Forest Structure Under Different Management Regimes in the Western Lowlands of Nepal

ABSTRACT

For landscape level conservation and rural sustenance, forests outside of protected areas are becoming increasingly important. Since most outside forests in the lowlands of Nepal are under government control and utilized as open access resources, their feasibility to achieve these objectives is questionable. We compared forests inside (with three decades of strict protection) and outside of protected areas (under government control and proposed as community forests) to assess the ecological sustainability of outside forests and to provide baseline data on structure of outside forests so that effectiveness of community forestry (after implementation) can be evaluated in the future. Our results indicate that outside forests were in a degraded condition with low tree, sapling and seedling densities and lower species diversity. Trees in lower dbh (diameter at breast height) classes were absent in these forests. Although the canopy layer was not significantly different, the ordination of plots and species showed that species composition of understory and the ground layer were different than protected forests. The present condition of outside forests is not only ecologically unsustainable but also cannot fulfill the demands for forest products of local people. The inefficiency of government to monitor against exploitation has been responsible for present conditions. We recommend that community forestry programs, which are successful in improving conditions of degraded forests in the mountains of Nepal, should be widely implemented in lowland areas (Terai) and proposed community forests should be handed over to local communities as soon as it is practicable.     

村社林业活动与自然保护区森林资源管理

村社林业是指在一个具体的村社或农村生态系统内 ,以农户为主题 ,旨在解决农户自身生存和发展所需的林业活动 ,是林业发展的重要组成部分。高黎贡山东坡百花岭村农户在社区与保护方面做了有益的尝试 ,多形式、多内容的林业经营管理活动促进了社区林业的发展与自然保护区森林资源和生物多样性保护 ,为周围村社提供了有益的经验。文中以高黎贡山东坡百花岭村所开展的各项村社林业活动为例 ,叙述了农村社区林业活动的公众参与对高黎贡山森林资源的有效管理与周围农村经济持续发展的作用和意义     

高黎贡山生物多样性保护与社区林业发展的研究

高黎贡山自然保护区森林资源丰富,动植物种类繁多,其物种多样性的丰富程度为国内外罕见。由于周边社区集体森林破坏严重,使保护区受到周围村社的"蚕食",给高黎贡山的森林资源管理和生物多样性保护工作带来了巨大的压力。在对村社集体林地的管理与高黎贡山生物多样性保护相关性论述的基础上,提出加强对乡村集体森林的管理,发展社区林业,实行"以林养林",即以发展集体林来保护国有林、保护区,使社区林业的发展既为当地农户提供日常生产、生活和经济发展所需要的非木材林产品、薪材及木材,又为保护区构筑一道以集体林为主的绿色屏障,以实现自然保护区森林资源管理、生物多样性保护和周围农村经济的协调发展。     

Homestead forest resources and their role in household economy: A case study in the villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila of central Bangladesh

This study examines the species composition, diversity and economic importance of homestead forests in the household economy of central Bangladesh. The study documents 57 homestead forest species and their main usage in 90 households across three villages of Gazipur Sadar Upazila. Homestead forests in Bangladesh comprise a mixture of fruit, timber and bamboo species. While superficially homestead forestry appears unimportant in rural livelihoods, in reality the contribution is huge, both as a source of food security and for other necessary household materials. A clear understanding of the physical characteristics and economic role of homestead forests in rural livelihoods is vital for ensuring sustainable resource management. Income and production of homestead forestry on a per hectare basis are found to vary widely between landholding size classes. Significant relationships are identified between forest performance (production and income) and species richness and education level. Homestead forestry appears to be a potential subsistence income generating land-use practice in the study area. The economic scope of homestead forestry can be further enhanced provided the appropriate species composition of the forest is achieved and the education of forest owners is ensured through targeted management and policy interventions.     

Incentives and Community Participation in the Governance of Community Forests in Nepal

Increased participation of local users in decision-making about forests and gaining benefits from these forests are major goals of the community forestry program in Nepal. However, there is a lack of real participation in community forest governance amongst users, particularly by poor and marginalised members. By employing a mixed-method approach, this research explores the issue of participation in the governance of community forests, and in particular the role of incentives in increasing participation. A partial least square approach is undertaken to link the participation indicators to the various incentives. Access to benefits, enforcement of legal property rights and social cohesion through building of local institutions are identified as the key influential incentives that determine the effective participation of users in community forest governance. Other incentive—including income supplements, community infrastructure development or payment for environment services—are insufficient to counter the opportunity cost of participation, and hence have a weak but still significant influence on users’ decisions to participate. Power inequality due to socio-cultural norms, together with poor economic capabilities and weak bargaining power, could undermine the meaningful participation of poor and disadvantaged groups in the governance of community forests, unless the community forestry institutions are strengthened in order to be able to deal with the issues of inequitable access and restricted opportunities at the local level.     

Fengshui forest management by the Buyi ethnic minority in China

Fengshui forests, very popular among the ethnic minorities in the rural areas in Guizhou Province of China, have spiritual symbolic meanings and are strictly managed. This paper examines the nature, history, local perceptions and management of fengshui forests in two Buyi villages in the Guizhou Province. With their long history, the fengshui forests are perceived to provide good wishes, security, unity, fortune, wealth and health to the local communities. Fengshui forests act as a form of “community based nature reserve” which maintains the health of natural forests, especially hydrological features and prevention of soil erosion. Cunguimingyue (Folk Regulation and Customs) is the primary local normative mechanism that maintains the fengshui forests in a good condition. The lessons learnt from local fengshui forest management needs to be incorporated in for contemporary China's forest policy formulation as these forests play an important role in rural livelihoods.     

Socio-economic significance of reed forests in a rural community: A case study from the greater Sylhet Region of Bangladesh

The reed forests that are the subject of this study are scattered over five thanas of the Sunamganj and Sylhet Districts of the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. Their total area is 23,590 ha and they have great ecological, economic, commercial and socio-economic importance due to the diversified resources they supply. However, the forests are commonly encroached on by local people who are perceived to be seriously depleting the resource. This paper deals with the socio-economic status of the people residing near these reed forests, and examines their dependency on the resources provided by the reed forests. A socio-economic survey, participatory rural appraisal and interviews were used to obtain baseline data of the reed forest resource and the local communities. The study reveals that the communities in the study region have higher income than other areas of Bangladesh. Most survey respondents have other occupations in addition to farming. The literacy rate is 28.8%. Among the illiterate, 68% engage in collecting reeds. Although the Forest Department has a management plan for sustainable use of the reed forests, encroachers receive backing from political leaders and local elites, so their eviction is difficult. In order to achieve long-term productivity and sustainability from the reed forests, this study recommends a strategy of developing an integrated joint management plan between the Forest Department and the local people.