Agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka

A review of agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka is provided with emphasis on traditional systems, plantation intercropping, silvopastoral systems, fertility improvement and community approaches. Comments are presented on the potentials and difficulties of each technology along with recommendations for further research and training. Some information on components of a number of agroforestry systems has been collected during the last 8 years. A brief account of the results is presented together with comments on current agroforestry practices.     

Intercropping under coconuts in Sri Lanka

Coconut is a major commercial crop of Sri Lanka. Growing a number of other crops in association with coconuts is a widespread practice in all coconut-growing areas of the country. The rationale for the practice is that other crops can profitably be grown between or under the coconuts during the different growth stages of the palms and thus the overall productivity of the land under this long-duration crop can substantially be increased. The paper gives a concise account of the practice in Sri Lanka indicating the crops most commonly grown as intercrops, arrangement of different crops and early research results on the productivity of the intercrops and their effect on coconuts. Adequate supplies of water and labour are the two major inputs needed for the success of the system. Drought, lack of funds, price instability, lack of technical know-how on intercrop management and problems of timely availability of inputs are the major constraints experienced by farmers in expanding intercropping. Research on both biological and socio-economic aspects is needed to overcome these constraints and extend this potentially attractive system.     

Alley cropping and analog forests for soil conservation in the dry uplands of Sri Lanka

The use of contour hedgerows of woody legumes to control soil erosion has been promoted amongst smallholders in the Upper Mahaweli catchment of Sri Lanka since 1988. The success of this program depends greatly on the properties of the different production systems occupying the alleys created by these hedgerows such as: profitability, time taken for profit to be realized, labour requirements, seasonal distribution of labour, environmental and economic stability, biophysical sustainability, the contribution of the system to the domestic needs of the farm family, adoptability of the system and successful management of the hedgerows. These properties were used to evaluate seven desktop farm models with different combinations of: seasonal crops, coffee-pepper intercrop, fodder-dairy, woodlot, and analog forest established in the alleys. The analog forest is a perennial polyculture which, like the traditional forest garden, is structurally and functionally analogous to the natural forest. It was found that a model with 40% seasonal crops, 20% perennial crops (coffee-pepper) and 40% analog forest made the best compromise between the properties under consideration. It is recognized that the socio-economic conditions that determine the appropriateness of this model in the Sri Lankan context are not universal and the extension of the analog forest concept into other tropical uplands is discussed.     

Pattern and Composition of Secondary Succession Beneath Caribbean Pine Plantations of Southwest Sri Lanka

This study examined the vegetation growing beneath Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) plantations established within previously abandoned tea lands adjacent to intact rain forest in southwest Sri Lanka. To examine the pattern and composition of secondary succession and factors affecting it, vegetation was sampled in different relative locations (interior and edge conditions) within plantations. Results demonstrated that more vegetation was found near the plantation edges than in the interior, and this pattern was prominent for both wind- and bird- dispersed species. The vegetation represented a mixture of species belonging to a range of successional guilds representing early (17 species, 42.4% in stem count) and late-successional species (52 species, 40.6%), although native long-lived canopy tree species were mostly absent. Bird-dispersed species dominated the flora (80 species, 86.7% in stem count). Abundance of an exotic shrub Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae) showed a negative correlation with that of other species, indicating its impact on native flora. Underplanting of native canopy species may be effective in assisting secondary succession and control C. hirta in the plantations.     

A survey of interculture practices and research in Sri Lanka

A survey on interculture research in Sri Lanka is outlined with details of species composition, spatial arrangement and justification for growing the crops as mixtures. The systems include interculture in tea, rubber and coconut plantations, spice gardens and alley cropping between leguminous tree crops. Soil conservation, generation of fuel and fodder, incentives for replanting and export diversification are some of the justifications put forward for interculture along with microclimate modification and reduction of pest incidence. The predominant expected yield criterion was some yield of associated intercrop with no reduction in tree crop yield rather than a land equivalence ratio of greater than unity. Major methodological problems were encountered due to lack of published information in mixture yields and the heterogeneity of experimental sites. Techniques for determining the biological basis of any yield advantage and the optimal spatial arrangement of intercrops were also missing.     

Participatory Conservation in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve (CBR) project seeks to promote community-based and participatory forms of conservation at four protected areas in Ecuador. This chapter provides a review of the academic and practitioner literature on participatory conservation, and explores the kinds of participation which occur in the CBR. Three assertions are central to the paper. First, the ways communities are represented by project documents and project planners condition the outcomes of participatory projects. Second, the intense focus of participatory approaches on the community level diverts attention from political and economic realities which constrain the ability of community members to actively conserve natural resources. And third, the chronological point at which communities and local people become involved in decision processes affects the kinds of participation in conservation projects; because problem definition is a key moment in which various participants establish basic assumptions about the nature of problems, the exclusion of local communities from the initial phases of program planning conditions the ways in which communities are likely to participate in conservation efforts. The paper addresses these issues by looking at the cases of management planning activities, the water fund (FONAG), extension efforts in the Sinangoé community, and the Local Participation in the Management of Protected Areas (PALOMAP) external review of participation in the CBR initiative.     

Motivating factors and facilitating conditions explaining women's participation in co-management of Sri Lankan forests

Among South Asian countries, Sri Lanka has only recently ventured into community management of its forests. This paper focuses on a qualitative exploration of two communities in a rainforest conservation project in Sri Lanka. The high level of women's participation is attributed to motivating factors and facilitating conditions. Obstacles to forest co-management outcomes include reduced forest dependency and top–down decision making. Adaptive implementation strategies compensate for these obstacles by establishing strong networks and structural organizations in forest boundary communities. This suggests that an intervention addressing the actual needs of stakeholders, rather than focusing on perceived problems, would allow for increased participation.     

中国地方层面生物多样性参与式保护机制和方法构想

随着生态环境的日益恶化,生物多样性保护越来越受到国家的重视,但在地方层面,由于地方政府过度关注经济发展,生物多样性保护还没有受到足够的重视.文章以四川省盐边县、云南省金平县作为研究构想地,分析了两地生物多样性现状及保护存在的问题,提出了地方层面生物多样性保护的机制和方法构想,其主要内容包括生物多样性保护工具包、培训体系、跨部门多利益合作机制以及信息交流平台.     

戴云山国家级自然保护区森林生物多样性保护探讨

本文分析了戴云山国家级自然保护区森林生物多样性保护的现状,指出威胁森林生物多样性保护的主要因素和森林生物多样性保护应遵循的原则,探讨实现森林生物多样性有效保护的具体措施。     

Stem and Crown Relations in Four Species from an Evermoist Forest in Sri Lanka

Abstract

The volume of a tree's crown represents the accumulated historic crown surfaces integrated over time and environmental conditions. As such the crown volume of a tree should be correlated to the stem diameter, which represents accumulated historic wood increment. This study examines the relationship between crown and stem metrics of four tree species, Macaranga peltata, Schumacheria castaneifolia, Shorea megistophylla, and Shorea trapezifolia, from an evermoist forest in southwestern Sri Lanka. Shorea megistophyllahad the highest correlation between crown volume and stem diameter of the four species (r² = 0.55). The addition of an inverted parabola, to represent historic crown surfaces not included by the current crown volume, improved correlations with stem diameter significantly, especially in the flat-topped pioneer species, Macaranga peltata. Schumacheria castaneifoliashowed poor correlations between stem and crown dimensions, suggesting that allocation to fruit and flower production may receive higher priority than diameter growth. The relative importance of current crown volume and cumulative crown volume in explaining variation in stem diameter offers insight into species life-history patterns.     

Endangered lowland oak forest steppe remnants keep unique bird species richness in Central Hungary

The biodiversity of natural or semi-natural native,old oak woodlands have high conservation impor-tance,especially in landscapes of monocultural forest plan-tations and arable fields.With a wider variety of microhabi-tats and foraging sources,such old oak forests can provide essential habitat for native forest bird communities.We con-ducted a study using bird point counts to compare the forest bird communities of old pedunculate oak (Quercus robur)remnants with native and non-native plantations in central Hungary in a landscape of mostly arable fields,settlements,and monocultural plantations.Avian surveys were carried out in old oak forest remnants,middle-aged oak,white pop-lar (Populus alba),hybrid poplar (Populus × euramericana),black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia),and pine (Pinus spp.)plantations.Fieldwork has been carried out in nine study sites,where all six habitat types were represented (with a few exceptions),to determine total abundance,species rich-ness,Shannon-Wiener diversity,species evenness,domi-nant and indicator species,and guild abundances.We found that old oak forest remnants were the most diverse habitats among the studied forest types,while hybrid poplar and pine plantations exhibited the lowest avian biodiversity.The avian guilds most sensitive to the loss of old oak forest remnants were ground foragers,bark foragers,cavity-nest-ers,residents,and Mediterranean migratory birds.Native habitats were more diverse than non-native plantations.Our results suggest that it is important to conserve all remaining high biodiversity old oak stands and to avoid clear-cutting of monocultural plantations in favour of practices such as mixed-species plantations,longer rotation lengths,or reten-tion forestry.     

孟加拉森林保护区系统综述

孟加拉目前共建立了19个保护区,包含了该国家全部4种森林类型。这些保护区既可以保存生物多样性,也为当地群众维持生计提供资源。一直以来,各个保护区由国家林业局统一管理以确保森林的可持续性：近期,一项共同管理措旌开始在5个保护区试点,借此发展参与森林保护的伙伴。此项措施已经产生一些积极的影响,还要适当的附加限制的发挥积极性,确保共同参与这项措施获得成功,推进正在进行的保护计划。本文综述了已发表的研究成果、政府和项目文件,来分析保护区的现状,并给出相应的建议。     

参与式社区资源规划在国家级生态示范区建设中的应用

在生态示范区建设规划中,尝试应用参与式社区资源规划方法.文中对参与式社区资源应用的适宜性进行了分析,并运用实践案例表明了参与式社区资源规划的实施过程.利用这种方法编制示范区规划,能够增强社区村民的拥有感,有利于规划活动的实施.     

Participatory technology development for incorporating non-timber forest products into forest restoration in Yunnan,Southwest China

Indigenous knowledge has become a topic of considerable interest within the research and development environment. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into state-led ‘top-down’ conservation and development programmes, however, is still a great challenge. This paper presents a case from Yunnan, Southwest China, in which indigenous knowledge has been integrated into the development of an agroforestry model with non-timber forest products for the Sloping Land Conservation Programme (SLCP) by using a participatory technology development (PTD) approach. This approach was adopted to increase the likelihood that technologies developed would be suitable for resource-poor households. It is expected that integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge, will lead to positive ecological and economic outcomes. Finally, the paper argues that the integration of indigenous knowledge in both forestry policy formulation and implementation is important in the context of sustainable forest management in mountain areas.     

Identifying, managing and monitoring conflicts between forest biodiversity conservation and other human interests in Europe

In this paper, circumstances where various human activities and interests clash with the conservation of forest biodiversity are examined, with particular focus on the drivers behind the conflicts. After identifying past and current human-related threats potentially leading to conflicts in forests, the paper will focus on conflict management and monitoring, with an emphasis on inclusionary stakeholder networks and a range of approaches towards sustainable land use. Three dimensions of conflicts are examined: substance (‘how things are’), procedure (‘how things are done’), and relationships (‘how people behave’). These relations will relate to three conflict management approaches: (1) technical, which may contribute to reduce or solve the conflict acting on the ‘substance’ dimension, (2) political, which may influence the ‘procedure’ dimension of the conflict establishing principles or rules, and (3) cultural, which may affect the ‘relationship’ dimension of the conflict. Finally, a general model of adaptive conflict management emphasising communication among the parties and a participatory approach that involves monitoring of the conflict resolution outcomes is proposed. The recognition that strong perceptions among stakeholders have the potential to aggravate conflicts is central to the concept of a inclusionary conflict management framework, improved communication between all stakeholders, and better awareness of the context of the conflicts is emphasised.     

国有林场森林资源信息管理系统研究及应用

以登封国有林场为试验对象,开发了国有林场森林资源信息管理系统,并得到应用。基本上实现了登封国有林场森林资源管理的信息化,为森林资源的科学管理和决策,以及可持续发展提供了技术支持。     

高黎贡山生物多样性保护与社区林业发展的研究

高黎贡山自然保护区森林资源丰富,动植物种类繁多,其物种多样性的丰富程度为国内外罕见。由于周边社区集体森林破坏严重,使保护区受到周围村社的"蚕食",给高黎贡山的森林资源管理和生物多样性保护工作带来了巨大的压力。在对村社集体林地的管理与高黎贡山生物多样性保护相关性论述的基础上,提出加强对乡村集体森林的管理,发展社区林业,实行"以林养林",即以发展集体林来保护国有林、保护区,使社区林业的发展既为当地农户提供日常生产、生活和经济发展所需要的非木材林产品、薪材及木材,又为保护区构筑一道以集体林为主的绿色屏障,以实现自然保护区森林资源管理、生物多样性保护和周围农村经济的协调发展。     

Water management in agroforestry systems: integrated buffalo ponds and forest gardens in the Badulla district, Sri Lanka

Within agroforestry research relatively little attention has been given to water management practices. In order to illustrate the relevance of this management practice, an analysis is made of the integrated management of buffalo ponds and forest gardens in the Badulla district, Sri Lanka. The cultivation of multi-storeyed agroforests around small water reservoirs allows the combined management of vegetation and water resources. The ponds are primarily used for storing water, regulating streamflow, catching sediments and wallowing of water buffaloes. The inclusion of the ponds increases the multifunctional nature of the forest gardens, especially in relation to water, erosion and sedimentation management and animal husbandry, and thus optimizes the complementary nature of forest gardens in the total farming system.