Experimental equine herpesvirus-1 infection in llamas (Lama glama).

Three llamas (Lama glama) were experimentally infected intranasally with an isolate of equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) from the brain of an alpaca that had experienced severe neurologic signs. Two of the 3 llamas developed severe neurologic disorders following inoculation; 1 died, and 1 was euthanized in a moribund state. The third llama showed only mild neurologic signs. The euthanized llama had preexisting antibodies to EHV-1, and the remaining 2 llamas were seronegative (virus neutralization titer less than 6) at the time of inoculation. One of the seronegative llamas died acutely without production of detectable antibodies, and the other developed antibodies typical of a primary immune response. The EHV-1 virus was recovered only from a sample of the thalamus of the llama that died acutely. Histopathologic lesions were observed in the brain and retina of the dead and euthanized animals. This study verifies the pathogenic potential of EHV-1 for llamas.     

Hematologic features of iron deficiency anemia in llamas.

Iron deficiency anemia was identified and characterized in three 14 to 29-month-old male llamas (llama Nos. 1-3) from separate herds in Colorado. The identification of iron deficiency anemia was based on hypoferremia (serum iron = 20-60 micrograms/dl), erythrocytic features, and hematologic response to iron therapy. The anemia was moderate and nonregenerative and characterized by erythrocyte hypochromia, microcytosis (mean cell volume = 15-18 fl), and decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (36.0-41.0 g/dl). Morphologic features unique to llamas with iron deficiency anemia included irregular distribution of hypochromia within erythrocytes and increased folded cells and dacryocytes. The cause of iron deficiency was not determined. The llamas were treated with various doses and schedules of parenteral iron dextran. Two of the llamas were monitored for up to 14 months after the start of iron therapy and experienced increases in hematocrit and mean cell volume values. In one llama, progressive replacement of microcytic cells with normal cells was visualized on sequential erythrocyte volume distribution histograms following iron therapy.     

Foot-and-mouth disease virus in the llama (Lama glama): diagnosis, transmission, and susceptibility

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) was shown to be transmitted from either cattle to llamas, llamas to swine (interspecies), or llamas to llamas (intraspecies). Response to FMDV varied greatly in the 6 llamas studied; 3 llamas developed generalized clinical disease with mild pyrexia, 2 after intradermolingual inoculation, and 1 after exposure to a calf infected with FMDV serotype A24. Another contact llama developed vesicular lesions on all 4 extremities but no oral lesions. Two contact llamas, in separate study groups, did not seroconvert or develop clinical signs of FMDV infection. All 4 llamas showing clinical disease developed virus-neutralizing antibodies against FMDV A24 and antibodies against the virus-infection-associated antigen. Virus-neutralizing antibody titers remained elevated for over 200 days postinoculation or exposure. Antibodies to virus-infection-associated antigen were detected several days after virus-neutralizing antibody appeared and became weaker 100-125 days post-FMDV exposure in 3 of the 4 clinically affected llamas. One inoculated llama was still positive for virus-infection-associated antigen at 360 days after inoculation. Foot-and-mouth disease virus A24 was not detected from esophageal-pharyngeal fluid specimens beyond 8 days postexposure using in vitro techniques.     

Encephalitic listeriosis in two adult llamas (Lama glama): clinical presentations, lesions and immunofluorescence of Listeria monocytogenes in brainstem lesions

Encephalitic listeriosis was diagnosed in 2 adult llamas. Both had a multifocal suppurative encephalitis with mixed lymphocytic and neutrophilic perivascular infiltrates. Listeria monocytogenes was cultured from the brain stem of 1 llama using cold enrichment techniques; the other llama was culture negative. Formalin-fixed and paraffin embedded sections of brainstem lesions from both affected animals were labeled with a fluorescein-conjugated, anti-L. monocytogenes antibody. Using this technique, intralesional L. monocytogenes were identified in both llamas.     

Assessment of serum concentrations and sedative effects of fentanyl after transdermal administration at three dosages in healthy llamas

OBJECTIVE: To determine the serum concentrations and sedative effects of fentanyl after transdermal administration at 3 dosages in llamas. ANIMALS: 9 healthy adult female llamas (mean age, 8 +/- 3 years; mean weight, 150 +/- 18 kg). PROCEDURE: Llamas were allocated to 1 of 3 groups (3 llamas/group). Fentanyl patches (each providing transdermal delivery of 75 microg of fentanyl/h) were placed on shaved areas of the antebrachium of all llamas. In group 1, llamas were treated with 1 patch (anticipated fentanyl dosage, 75 microg/h). In group 2, llamas were treated with 2 patches (anticipated fentanyl dosage, 150 microg/h). In group 3, llamas were treated with 4 patches (anticipated fentanyl dosage, 300 microg/h). For each llama, the degree of sedation was assessed by use of a subjective scoring system and a blood sample was collected for determination of serum fentanyl concentration at 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 hours after patch placement. RESULTS: Following the placement of 4 patches, mean +/- SD serum fentanyl concentration in group 3 llamas reached 0.3 +/- 0.08 ng/mL within 12 hours. This concentration was sustained for 72 hours. In group 2, application of 2 patches provided inconsistent results; in group 1, application of 1 patch rarely provided measurable serum fentanyl concentrations. No llamas became sedated at any time. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that application of four 75 microg/h fentanyl patches provides consistent, sustained serum fentanyl concentrations without sedation in llamas. However, the serum concentration of fentanyl that provides analgesia in llamas is not known.     

Ventral Abdominal Approach for Laparoscopic Ovariectomy in Llamas

Objective —To evaluate a technique for laparoscopic ovariectomy by a ventral abdominal approach in the llama.
Study Design —Prospective evaluation.
Animal Population —Six healthy adult female llamas, aged 2 to 6 years.
Methods —Laparoscopic ovariectomy was performed with the llamas in a 30-degree Trendelenburg position. The mesovarium and proper ligament of the ovary were isolated, and two Hulka clips were placed in opposite directions across each mesovarium and proper ligament of the ovary. Ovaries were removed through either the instrument cannula or instrument portal.
Results —The ovaries, mesovarium, and proper ligaments of the ovaries were easily identified using laparoscopy by a ventral abdominal approach. The Hulka Clip Applicator was easy to use, and the Hulka Clips provided secure hemostasis of the vessels within the mesovarium. Mean duration of surgery was 35 minutes (range, 17 to 85 minutes). Two llamas were depressed after surgery but improved within 24 hours. No other complications occurred during an 18-month follow-up period.
Conclusions —Laparoscopic ovariectomy in the llama was facilitated by the use of Hulka Clips placed across the mesovarium and proper ligament of the ovary.
Clinical Relevance —Laparoscopic ovariectomy in the llama can be accomplished easily with few complications.     

XX/XY chimerism and freemartinism in a female llama co-twin to a male.

A 20-month-old female llama was examined because at the time of mating, the male llama was apparently unable to achieve intromission. The female llama had been born co-twin to a male. On physical examination, the vaginal vestibule appeared to end in a blind pouch, and the uterus, cervix, and ovaries could not be identified during transrectal palpation or ultrasonography. Karyotyping was done, and 43% of blood lymphocytes had 2 X chromosomes, and 57% had 1 X and 1 Y chromosome. All skin fibroblasts had 2 X chromosomes. A diagnosis of freemartinism and XX/XY chimerism was made. Because conception of twins may be more common in llamas than birth of twins, it is possible that freemartinism could develop in singleton females, if, for instance, a male twin was conceived and died after the placentas had anastomosed. More widespread use of karyotyping in llamas with congenital defects of the reproductive tract will help to define the incidence of freemartinism.     

Experimental exposure of llamas (Lama glama) to Brucella abortus: humoral antibody response

Positive antibody reactions to brucella were observed in the sera of four llamas receiving Brucella abortus Strain 19 subcutaneously at 2-3 weeks post-exposure (PE) using five of eight conventional brucella serologic tests and an ISU-ELISA. Positive brucella antibody reactions were detected in sera of four llamas exposed by intraocular instillation (IOI) of 1.02x10(8) (high dose) B. abortus Strain 2308 at 16-35 days PE using seven of eight serologic tests or an ISU-ELISA. Brucella antibody was also detected in sera of four llamas exposed by IOI of 9x10(5) (low dose) B. abortus using each of four agglutination tests, Complement Fixation test, PCFIA, the rivanol test and the ISU-ELISA at 16-35 days PE. Positive reactions were observed using the Card test, BAPA, SPT, STT, the rivanol test, the PCFIA, and the ISU-ELISA on sera collected on days 42-70 PE, except on one llama, given the low dose; that llama was negative on the PCFIA on day 42. Positive or suspicious reactions were not detected in sera of controls, receiving saline subcutaneously, using the routine tests, with the exception of the CFT. The B. abortus Strain 2308 was isolated from tissues of seven of eight llamas exposed to virulent B. abortus Strain 2308.     

Detection of lysozyme in llama, sheep, and cattle tears

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the tears of llamas, sheep, and cattle contain lysozyme and compare lysozyme concentrations in tears among these species. ANIMALS: 40 llamas, 5 sheep, and 36 cattle. PROCEDURE: Electrophoresis, western blot immunoassay for lysozyme, a spectrophotometric assay to detect tear lysozyme by its ability to lyse a suspension of Micrococcus lysodeiticus, and a microtiter plate colorometric assay were performed. RESULTS: A 13.6-kd protein band was detected by use of electrophoresis and western blot immunoassay in llama and sheep tears but not cattle tears. Results of spectrophotometric assay suggested that llama and sheep tears had high concentrations of lysozyme, whereas cattle tears had low concentrations. Results of the microtiter plate colorometric assay suggested that llama tears had high concentrations of lysozyme, whereas concentrations in sheep and cattle tears were lower. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Lysozyme concentrations in tears may vary among species and this variability may contribute to differing susceptibilities to ocular diseases such as infectious keratoconjunctivitis.     

Llama medicine. Obstetrics, neonatal care, and congenital conditions

Obstetrical care of the llama is very similar to other food animal and equine obstetrics. Understanding the few unique llama characteristics such as birthing from a standing position, no licking of the neonate by the mother, and the epidermal membrane covering the newborn, help give confidence when treating llamas. Dystocia is rare in the llama but when veterinary assistance is required, understanding the shape of the female pelvis aids in manipulations. Llama neonatal care is minimal for the healthy cria, but intensive care of a compromised cria is extremely demanding, and not always rewarding. The suggestions presented in this article are the result of 4 years' experience in providing care to many ill neonatal llamas. Several methods have been adapted from equine neonatal medicine used at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California. Basic physiological information concerning llama neonates, healthy and ill, is still being investigated. It is judicious to identify and discuss congenital problems in neonates prior to intensive support.     

Adaptations of subpalpebral lavage systems used for llamas (Lama glama) and a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina).

Subpalpebral lavage systems (SPLSs) were adapted for use in zoo llamas (Lama glama) and a wild harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) during therapy for severe ulcerative keratitis or corneal perforation. One llama presented with a melting corneal ulcer caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which necessitated frequent application of a topical ophthalmic antibiotic. The lavage system was used routinely during the day and was connected to a balloon infusion system at night to allow for continuous medication administration. The ulcer healed soon after therapy was extended to include overnight treatment with the infusion system. A SPLS system was also combined with a balloon infusor during postoperative treatment of a second llama that had sustained a corneal perforation. Both llamas tolerated the infusor/lavage systems well and regained vision. One llama had minor conjunctival irritation from the SPLS that resolved quickly without treatment. Bilateral SPLS were placed in a wild harbor seal for treatment of severe ulcerative keratitis associated with Candida albicans infection. The seal tolerated the lavage systems well throughout 14 wk of their use in an aquatic environment with other seals. Partial detachment of the lavage systems from the skin of the seal occurred a few times during treatment and was easily corrected. Severe keratitis resolved with administration of antimicrobials through the lavage systems, and the seal was returned to the wild. The use of SPLSs alone or in ombination with balloon infusion systems warrants consideration for exotic, wild, and aquatic animals that cannot tolerate repetitive manual applications of topical ophthalmic medication.     

Llamas--sedation and anesthesia (review article)]

Increasing is the number of Llamas (Llama glama) referred to veterinarians for diagnostic or therapeutic procedures which frequently require sedation or anaesthesia. Much of the knowledge concerning sedation and anaesthesia of domesticated ruminants and horses can be applied to sedate or anaesthetise a llama. A variety of considerations remain special for the llama. The article reviews all aspects of today's knowledge about sedation and anaesthesia of llamas.     

Plasma progesterone concentrations in pregnant and non-pregnant llamas (Lama glama)

Female llamas ovulate in response to copulation, and progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum indicates recent ovulation (mating) and, or, pregnancy. The plasma progesterone concentration was 0.9 to 1.4 ng/ml in five non-pregnant llamas and 7.4 to 9.2 ng/ml in three llamas in the last month of pregnancy. After ovulation had been induced in nine of 10 llamas by a single intramuscular injection of 500 or 750 iu of human chorionic gonadotrophin, the plasma progesterone concentration increased after two days from 0.5 to 1.2 ng/ml to 4.6 to 10.3 ng/ml after six to nine days and returned to basal values after 10 to 13 days, reflecting the life-span of a corpus luteum in the absence of conception. After a male llama had been introduced into a group of 13 females, 10 matings which resulted in eight conceptions occurred in the first 11 days, and 11 of the llamas became pregnant. The llamas' progesterone concentrations increased after mating and remained high if conception had occurred: 6 to 12 ng/ml in months one to four, and 5 to 9 ng/ml in months five to nine of the 11-month gestation. Two of the 13 llamas had high concentrations of progesterone although they did not become pregnant.     

Maintenance energy requirement of llamas.

Five castrated male llamas (mean body weight, 94 kg) were studied in an energy balance trial to determine maintenance energy requirement of llamas. Llamas were fed a 50% oat hay-50% pelleted concentrate diet (2.43 Mcal of metabolizable energy/kg of diet dry matter) at approximately 1.6% of body weight (BW). An 8-day total collection digestion trial was used to determine fecal and urine energy losses. Heat production and methane emissions were determined via indirect respiration calorimetry measurements on each llama fed at the same level of intake as during the digestion trial and subsequently on days 3 and 4 of a period of nonfeeding. Fecal, urine, and methane energy losses of the llamas fed near-maintenance intake were 32.5, 3.5, and 7.1% of gross energy intake, respectively. The postabsorptive metabolic rate, commonly called nonfed (fasting) heat production, was 59.3 kcal/BW0.75. Using a linear relation between postabsorptive and maintenance energy requirement and efficiency of energy use below maintenance of 0.702, metabolizable energy requirement at maintenance was determined to be 84.5 kcal/BW0.75.     

Erythrocyte dyscrasia, anemia, and hypothyroidism in chronically underweight llamas

A syndrome characterized by anemia, erythrocyte dyscrasia, low body weight, and hypothyroidism was observed in 8 llamas (Lama glama). At initial examination (1 to 23 months of age; median, 7.5 months), llamas (3 males, 5 females) were markedly underweight (29 to 55 kg; median, 36 kg) and anemic (PCV, 12.9 to 25.5% [median, 19%]). Five of the llamas became progressively more anemic over time; in 2 of them, PCV decreased to less than 10%. Erythrocyte changes included severe poikilocytosis, anisocytosis, asymmetric distribution of hemoglobin within the cytoplasm, and cytoplasmic extensions from one or both poles. Six llamas had moderate to severe valgus deformities of the carpus. All llamas had low baseline serum thyroxine concentration and diminished response to thyrotropin administration. Baseline and post-thyrotropin triiodothyronine concentrations did not have consistent patterns. Five llamas were hypophosphatemic and 7 had low serum iron concentration (iron concentration was not determined in 1 llama). Orally administered iron supplementation did not induce clinical improvement. Because 3 of the affected llamas were full sisters, a genetic basis for the problem has to be considered. It was not possible to evaluate the familial relationship of the other 5 affected llamas. Although the underlying cause of the problem was not established, the prognosis for affected llamas is guarded to poor.     

Suspected chlorpyrifos toxicosis in a llama, and plasma pseudocholinesterase activity in llamas given chlorpyrifos

Five days after treatment with chlorpyrifos, a 1.5-year-old male llama was unable to stand, had saliva flowing from its mouth, and had constricted pupils, hyperglycemia, a metabolic acidosis, and a plasma pseudocholinesterase activity of 111 IU/L. Mean (+/- 1 SD) plasma pseudocholinesterase activity of 29 healthy llamas was 233.76 +/- 51.55 IU/L. Five to 8 days after topical application of chlorpyrifos (25 mg/kg of body weight) to 3 healthy llamas, the pseudocholinesterase activity decreased to 38% to 62% of pretreatment (base-line) activity and returned to within 90% of base-line activity by the 36th to 48th day after treatment.     

Suspected tolazoline toxicosis in a llama

Clinical signs of tolazoline toxicosis developed in a 4-year-old llama that received 2 doses of tolazoline hydrochloride to reverse xylazine-induced sedation. The full first dose (4.3 mg/kg [2.0 mg/lb] of body weight) was erroneously injected i.v., and the second dose was administered half i.v., half i.m. 45 minutes later, because the llama became weak and recumbent. Signs of anxiety, hyperesthesia, profuse salivation, and tachypnea were the first detectable clinical signs of tolazoline toxicosis. Convulsions, hypotension, gastrointestinal tract hypermotility, and diarrhea also developed. The llama was treated successfully with i.v. administration of diazepam, phenylephrine, and lactated Ringer's solution supplemented with potassium chloride and oxygen administered via nasal insufflation. We suggest that the maximum dose of tolazoline administered at any one time to llamas not exceed 2 mg/kg (0.91 mg/lb). Furthermore, tolazoline should be administered slowly i.v. or i.m. to reduce the risk of adverse reactions.     

Long-bone fractures in llamas: six cases (1993-1998)

OBJECTIVE: To determine clinical and radiographic findings, treatment, and outcome for llamas with long-bone fractures. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 6 llamas. PROCEDURE: Medical records of llamas admitted between 1993 and 1998 because of long-bone fractures were reviewed. Data collected included age, sex, type of fracture, method of fracture repair, and postoperative complications. The Fisher exact test was used to compare age and sex of the llamas with long-bone fractures with those of the hospital population of llamas. All owners were contacted by telephone to determine perceived postoperative problems and whether the llamas were able to perform as expected. RESULTS: Mean age was 160.8 days (range, 23 to 365 days). There was 1 male and 5 females. Fractures were more likely to occur in young llamas (< or = 1 year old) than in adults. Five of the fractures were attributed to traumatic episodes. Long bones affected included the tibia (n = 2), radius (2), femur (1), and humerus (1). Internal fixation with lag screws, plating, or both was performed on fractures of all llamas except 1; that llama was treated by use of confinement to a stall. None of the llamas had intraoperative complications, but postoperative complications were reported in 2 llamas. All fractures healed eventually, and clients were pleased with outcomes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Long-bone fractures in llamas are uncommon. Several types of long bone fractures can be successfully repaired by use of internal fixation, resulting in few complications and minimal convalescent time.     

Coccidia of the llama, Lama glama, in Colorado and Wyoming.

Fecal samples were collected from 144 llamas, Lama glama, on four premises in northern Colorado and southern Wyoming. Feces were examined for the presence of coccidial oocysts; Eimeria alpacae was found in 55.6%, Eimeria lamae in 67.3% and Eimeria macusaniensis in 1.4% of the samples. An adult female llama was found to be infected with Eimeria macusaniensis at necropsy. This is the first report of these species of coccidia in the llama.