Small-scale forestry development in Leyte,Philippines: The central role of nurseries

This paper presents results of survey research into the role of the forestry nursery sector in the development of smallholder forestry in Leyte, Philippines. Seedling production in the province is basically carried out by three categories of nurseries: individual, communal and the government. Seedlings in the government nurseries are primarily raised for free distribution to landholders but the extension scheme fails to reach the majority of the smallholder farmers. Seedling demand of landholders is mostly catered for by the more numerous and accessible individual and communal nurseries. However, problems of capital outlay, sources and supply of germplasm, technical knowledge in nursery management for both timber and fruit trees and low sales are among the major impediments in the sustainability of small-scale nurseries. Most of the communal nurseries fail to sustain the operation after the withdrawal of supporting agencies. Knowledge on site-species matching is needed not only by small-scale nursery operators but also by the managers of government nurseries. It is concluded that the seedling industry in the province is not well established and there is a need to organise better the overall nursery system so as to improve the availability of seedlings and promote appropriate site and species combinations.     

Enhancing Tree Seedling Supply to Smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: An Evaluation of the Production System of Government Nursery Sector and Support to Smallholder Tree Farmers

A decentralized seedling production is regarded as the most effective means of providing smallholders with planting materials. However, the sustainability of smallholder nursery operation is constrained by several factors, including the limited availability of germplasm, lack of technical skills and low seedling demand low viability of seedling market. The government nursery sector could complement the weaknesses of the smallholder nursery group but government nurseries are not operating effectively to enhance the availability of high quality seedlings of a wide species base for smallholder forestry. Seedling production in government nurseries is quantity-orientated with low emphasis on the production of high quality planting materials. Germplasm used in seedling production is mostly collected from unselected sources and seedlings produced are mostly of low physical quality. The species selection in government nurseries is heavily based on the availability of germplasm which resulted in the production of a few species which are commonly raised on private nurseries. The duplication of species of most seedlings raised in government nurseries with those produced in private nurseries and the far distance of government nurseries from the villages has resulted in low uptake of seedlings by smallholder tree farmers. For the government nursery sector to become more effective in providing support in the present paradigm of decentralized seeding production, a change from its production system and a broadening of the role it plays is needed. The social mobilization on seedling production as a scheme of implementing the Green Philippines Program has led the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to acknowledge the seedling production activity of private individual and communal nursery groups. This can be an opportunity for organizing the private and government nursery sectors to promote the operational effectiveness of the overall forest nursery industry.     

Loan financing of smallholder treefarming in the provinces of Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur,the Philippines

Following the model of a credit program for pulpwood production and agroforestry by smallholders in another region of the Philippines, the World Bank financed a similar scheme to produce fuelwood for the small-scale tobacco-curing industry in the Ilocos region. This project proved to be unsuccessful due to local cultural attitudes toward borrowing money, inadequate forestry extension services, and the dispersed characteristics of the fuelwood market.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

Assessing the Quality of Seedlings in Small-scale Nurseries in the Highlands of Cameroon: The Use of Growth Characteristics and Quality Thresholds as Indicators

In developing countries seedlings are often produced in small-scale nurseries as a means to raise tree planting materials and, provided they are of high quality, these can form the basis for successful forest plantation initiatives. This study uses morphological characteristics to assess the quality of seedlings of three tree species (Persea americana, Cola acuminata and Dacryodes edulis) in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The growth characteristics and quality indicators of seedlings produced in two nursery categories were compared—three nurseries collaborating with the tree domestication program implemented by the World Agroforestry Centre (Category 1) and three nurseries collaborating with government and non-governmental projects (Category 2). Seedlings produced in nurseries in the first nursery category were found to be uniform in terms of growth characteristics and quality indicators. In the second category, there were relatively higher seedling proportions having measured parameters out of threshold standards for root to shoot ratio and for sturdiness quotient. Significant differences between nursery categories (at α = 0.05) were detected in root collar diameter of C. acuminata and D. edulis and in shoot dry weight of D. edulis. These differences could be attributed to better nursery management as a results of training and technical backstopping received by nursery operators in Category 1. The level of experience of nursery operators in both categories was found to be insufficient and greater exposure to skills and knowledge could enhance the production of high quality seedlings.     

Building-up partnerships for community forestry: The ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project experience

This paper reports experiences of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Smallholder Forestry Project in the establishment of working relationships with a people’s organisation in Leyte Province, Philippines. Strategies adopted in building a partnership with the organisation through the establishment of a community nursery, conduct of field trial research and the emerging practical impacts on smallholders are specifically discussed. Information presented in this paper is the outcome of documented field experiences during the research as well as informal discussions with members of the people’s organisation. This project illustrates that within-community research can be an effective extension tool if local people are given the chance to participate in all stages of planning and implementation. Mere participation in research activities, however, is not enough. Continuing interaction between the researchers and the local people is crucial in paving the way to partnership building. The developmental partnership that was established has created practical impacts which may lead to more widespread adoption and promotion of farm and community forestry in Leyte Province.     

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.     

Assessing Market Potential of Agroforestry Tree Seedlings in Western Kenya

In this study, Porter’s framework is used to analyse the forces that coordinate and control the market for agroforestry tree seedlings in the Nyando basin in Western Kenya where smallholder farmers were assisted by non-governmental and research organisations to start tree seedling nurseries, with a view to fostering adoption of agroforestry in the region. In addition, financial viability of the enterprise is assessed and the resources and interventions required to improve the operators’ competitiveness and make the enterprise sustainable are identified. Primary data collected from eight nursery operators and sixty agroforestry farmers are used and supplemented with secondary information obtained from relevant literature to gain an insight into the tree seedling industry within and outside the region. The results indicate that the tree seedling industry is highly competitive and is characterised by several small-scale operators who employ similar strategies and produce and sell nearly homogenous products. Consequently, competition is based on price rather than on strategies that require capital investments such as branding, product differentiation and product promotion. The enterprise is financially viable but the gross margins, particularly those of timber tree seedlings, are sensitive to low seedling prices suggesting that competitors are exerting pressure on prices and profitability. Thus, to gain an edge over the competitors, the small-scale operators need to build competitive advantage by adopting strategies that allow them to charge higher prices for their products, maintain customer brand loyalty and understand the coordination, control and relationships within the industry.     

Fluctuating Fortunes of a Collective Enterprise: The Case of the Agroforestry Tree Seeds Association of Lantapan (ATSAL) in the Philippines

The Agroforestry Tree Seeds Association of Lantapan (ATSAL) in Bukidnon province of Mindanao, Philippines, was organized in 1998, facilitated by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Farmers were trained on germplasm collection, processing and marketing of agroforestry tree seeds and seedlings. ATSAL has been marketing various tree seeds and seedlings with apparent success, and has provided training on seed collection and nursery management to farmers, government technicians, and workers from non-government organizations. This paper reports initial results of a continuing study to assess the effectiveness of ATSAL’s marketing strategy, including group dynamics, and the issues and challenges the group faces. It was found that during the first 2 years, ATSAL’s market share of highly demanded timber tree species grew rapidly, thus helping to disseminate widely these important species among farmers. ICRAF’s technical back-up was an advantage, increasing the Association’s market credibility. Subsequently, ATSAL extended its market to the central Philippines, but failed to meet the demand for seeds due to organizational limitations. Market competition exists, where a non-member was able to take a larger market share than was the group. Nonetheless, ATSAL has established its name as a viable community-based seed and seedling producer, maintaining a stronghold in local and regional markets. Collective action is important for smallholders to gain market access, but is unlikely to sustain sales. Facilitating smallholder collective action is essentially an arduous task, requiring the supporting agency to hold a firm grasp of market realities, to invest in the maintenance of collective action, to provide continuous technical back-up, and to ascertain the conditions that make collective action succeed.     

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km² of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government’s afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.     

Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration: Lessons from the National Greening Program in the Philippines

The use of low quality planting material is one of the major reasons for the limited success of past reforestation programs in the Philippines and elsewhere in the tropics. In the Philippines, a national policy has been in place since 2010, which regulates the quality of seedlings. As part of the policy, government reforestation programs are required to use only high quality seedlings from accredited seedling suppliers. A survey of nurseries producing seedlings for the National Greening Program in Eastern Visayas and Northern Mindanao regions was carried out to determine the effectiveness and challenges in implementing the forest nursery accreditation policy. The survey identified factors that limit the effectiveness of seedling quality regulation including lack of auditing of seedling quality in accredited nurseries, insufficient monitoring of the seedling supply chain among the network of nurseries supplying seedlings for reforestation programs, inadequate seedling production schedules, and inappropriate criteria for seedling quality assessment. The limited sources of high quality germplasm, nursery operators’ limited information on the attributes of high quality planting materials and lack of knowledge about high quality seedling production technologies contributed to the widespread production of low quality seedlings. The lack of seedling quality checks makes the government’s bidding scheme of seedling purchases prone to favouring the proliferation of low quality seedlings that are usually sold at lower prices. Nursery accreditation represents a major initiative in promoting the success of Philippine reforestation but our study found that considerable improvement of the policy and of its implementation is necessary. From our study, key lessons can be learned for the implementation of forest landscape restoration initiatives in other tropical developing countries.     

Getting Trees Into Farmers’ Fields: Success of Rural Nurseries in Distributing High Quality Planting Material in Cameroon

Availability of high quality tree planting material within proximity of farmers and at affordable prices is one of the prerequisites for larger uptake of tree cultivation. This study examines whether rural small-scale nurseries can produce a diversity of tree planting material and whether resource-poor farmers have access to it. Twelve nurseries supported by the tree domestication program in the West and North-west regions of Cameroon were compared to 12 nurseries in similar conditions, but not in contact with the program. Nurseries using the domestication approach were found to provide tree planting material that responds better to farmers’ needs in terms of quantities, species and propagation methods used. Their clientele is more diverse including farmers from the communities where the nurseries are located, but also from far beyond. However, prices of vegetatively propagated material were considered the most prohibitive factor. It is concluded that tree planting initiatives should refocus efforts towards technical training and business support to small-scale nurseries to increase efficiency. Research efforts should look for ways of reducing production costs and improving nursery productivity.     

Tree Adoption and Nursery and Propagation Practices in Smallholder Upland Farms in Inopacan and Isabel, Leyte, the Philippines

This paper examines seedling nursery and propagation practices in smallholder farms in two upland areas in Leyte in the Philippines. The case study areas are relatively remote, little forestry extension has been carried out, and traditional practices can be observed. These practices were examined through a survey of smallholders and observation of forestry activities. It was found that in spite of various constraints and notably the lack of planting materials, farmers are interested in forestry and are adopting some naturally growing trees and producing their own seedlings. To make way to their crops, farmers have removed some naturally growing trees of some particular species on their farms. For the purpose of introducing trees to farms, wildlings are widely used as planting material. Some farmers also collect seeds and treat them in preparation for planting, using methods which differ from those recommended elsewhere by extension agencies, but which are nevertheless highly effective.     

The Influence of Farmers�� Mental Models on an Agroforestry Extension Program in the Philippines

The influence of farmers’ mental models on the success of an agroforestry extension program on Leyte Island in the Philippines was investigated. Knowledge of farmers’ mental models and hence the likely acceptance of technology was used to inform the design of a hypothetically expanded program. To gain an insight into the reasons behind differing acceptance of extension assistance, data were collected and analysed from formal interviews, translated conversations and visual observations. The data provided a chain of evidence and triangulation between farmers’ stated intentions and their actions. Farmers had little prior knowledge of nursery technology and were highly receptive to extension assistance which enabled them to develop high self-efficacy in seedling production. However, farmers’ rejection of silvicultural advice to thin and prune existing plantations was predicated by existing attitudes to forest resource management. Farmers also expressed a strong preference for a low-cost and low-input approach to establishing timber trees. Visual observations of farmers’ tree establishment practices indicated the existence of gaps in their knowledge of tree growth processes. This investigation illustrates the need to elicit farmers’ mental models as a parallel enquiry to extension activities. If agroforestry extension is to be constructivist and participatory, accommodation of farmers’ mental models and modification of program goals may be necessary. Relatively little is known about the reasons for farmers’ acceptance or rejection of silviculture in Leyte and these results indicate that further research into the way that farmers’ mental models filter and guide acceptance of advice may be worthwhile.     

Putting Back the Trees: Smallholder Silvicultural Enrichment of Post-Logged Concession Forest in Peruvian Amazonia

This paper presents a case of planting and management of natural regeneration of shihuahuaco (Dipteryx spp.) by recent migrants in a Peruvian Amazonian logging frontier. We interviewed residents of three communities of smallholders in Irazola District, Province of Padre Abad, Region of Ucayali, located within the historic and actual boundaries of an active logging concession, and conducted growth studies of shihuahuaco trees planted in two mixed-species agroforestry fields, over a period of 3 years. We found that the majority of landholders were managing the natural regeneration of valuable hardwood timber trees, and planting seedlings on their lands. Growth of shihuahuaco trees in agroforestry fields was comparable to growth rates in managed silvicultural plantations, which suggests the potential for local smallholders activities to contribute to conservation of genetic stock and eventual renewal of populations depleted by logging. We recommend greater recognition and inclusion of local people, with their innovative and productive silvicultural practices, in efforts to remediate the impacts of selective logging of high-value timber species.     

Bringing Agroforestry Technology to Farmers in Leyte, the Philippines: A Comparison of Two Extension Assistance Regimes

The response of farmers to personalised forestry and agroforestry extension assistance has not been well documented in the Philippines, thus providing the impetus for this research in which the effectiveness of extended on-farm assistance was compared with more limited assistance. In four municipalities in Leyte Island, farmers responded positively to an extended program which helped them overcome problems in germinating and growing seedlings and establishing trees on their land. A limited assistance program which sought to make use of farmers’ familiarity with growing and raising plants was relatively unsuccessful, with less preparation of tree planting sites and a higher rate of abandonment. Allowing farmers freedom to select planting sites and aspects of technical advice which suited their personal circumstances, encouraged a high degree of cooperation between extension staff and farmers, but 38% of farmers neglected post-planting weed control and 35% of sites were inappropriate for growing trees. Destruction of sites by flooding and grazing also caused farmers to blame extension staff even though these risks had been discussed with them beforehand. This suggested that a more interventionist approach would be appropriate for site selection although it may reduce recruitment. The number of farmers recruited through local government staff was low, but attendance by neighbours at locally held demonstrations was high, suggesting an avenue for further recruitment. Overall, the program was successful in shifting the initiative for further planting from extension staff to those farmers who received extended extension assistance.     

Operational Effectiveness of Centralized Nursery for Small-Scale Forestry in San Carlos City, Negros Occidental, the Philippines: Lessons Learned in Seedling Production for Commercial Energy Crop Plantations

One way to maximize potential income of smallholder tree farmers is to ensure high quality of planting material. In San Carlos City, Negros Occidental, the Philippines, great importance is placed on seedling quality because Energy Crop Plantations (ECPs) managed under a Short-Rotation Coppice (SRC) system will involve a single planting for several three-year coppices. High seedling quality requires superior seed provenances and seedling propagation methods. Throughout the establishment of the nursery facility, and the propagation of planting stock, data collection, reporting and database systems have been designed to capture relevant costs and technical information. Training has been provided to nursery personnel and labourers to enable them to operate the nursery and produce high quality seedlings. This paper reports a practical operational evaluation of all materials and procedures followed in nursery establishment and seedling production. Economies of scale in nursery operation are achieved at a production level of at least 90,000 seedlings per planting season of three months in the year. The production cost is estimated at PhP 3.57/seedling, excluding the cost of the nursery infrastructure and overheads. Cost comparison with decentralized or contracted nurseries shows little variation at a total cost of PhP 4.12/seedling. However, with these alternative nursery arrangements there is high risk of producing low quality seedlings by possible reduction of inputs and skipping quality enhancement procedures to reduce production cost.     

Compiling Market and Other Financial Data on Smallholder Forestry in Leyte, the Philippines

Data collection and maintenance of databases concerning smallholder forestry presents special problems in developing countries. This paper examines forestry data collection experiences in a series of research projects in Leyte, Philippines, supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, and the prospects for developing forestry accounting networks. A variety of financial data have been collected in relation to seedling production, plantation performance and timber marketing. Seedling production cost and revenue data have been obtained through snapshot surveys conducted in 2002 and 2008, and repeated attempts have been made to estimate financial returns from growing the most popular tree species. Diverse sources have been identified for timber market information. On the supply side, these include government records of registered plantations, obtaining inventory data from barangay (community) leaders, and reporting information about timber available for harvest on community notice boards. On the demand side, official records of registered timber merchants have been accessed, a detailed survey of timber processors has been conducted, and estimates are being made of apparent per capita timber consumption by district. Experiences in the Philippines reinforce that the potential for forestry accounting networks is limited by the resource-constrained situations of developing countries, placing greater reliance on one-off surveys. Use of pre-existing local networks and institutional structures offers potential for routine collection of forestry data, such as through barangay (village) leaders in the Philippines.     

Financial attractiveness of smallholder tree plantations in the Amazon: bridging external expectations and local realities

This paper compares the financial attractiveness of forest and agroforestry plantations promoted by external organizations with tree growing practices of Amazonian smallholders. Based on 80 case studies and interviews with 112 forestry professionals from Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, the paper characterizes the economic, environmental and structural implications, and identifies the respective financial costs and benefits. Six case studies provided data for in-depth financial analyses. The results showed that the expectations of externally promoted smallholder tree and agroforestry plantations were not met. Despite significant inputs, smallholders generated at best annual net incomes of US$200–$200–1,000 per ha from NTFP plantations, and up to US$800–$800–1,000 from timber plantations in the year of harvest. This corresponded to around one-third of the initially expected returns. Overall, only around 1% of the smallholders participating in such initiatives managed to produce and commercialize any plantation products. Smallholders’ practices of complementary tree growing in conjunction with agriculture and managing natural regeneration of timber and NTFP products were often underestimated by professionals. They required low input, didn’t rely on external support, were highly flexible in risky environments, and some presented financial returns comparable to some well functioning plantations.