Direct and admixture toxicity of diatomaceous earth and monoterpenoids against the storage pests <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callosobruchus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">maculatus</Emphasis> (F.) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus oryzae</Emphasis> (L.)

We investigated the effects of two commercial diatomaceous earth based insecticides (DE), Protect-It^® and SilicoSec^®, the nano-structured silica product AL06, developed by the section for Urban Plant Ecophysiology at Humboldt University Berlin, and the monoterpenoids, eugenol, and cinnamaldehyde on two stored product pests, Callosobruchus maculatus and Sitophilus oryzae. Protect-It^® was more effective than SilicoSec^® against C. maculatus while the reverse was true for S. oryzae. Generally C. maculatus was more sensitive towards DE and silica treatment than S. oryzae. Mortality rate of both pest species increased when DE’s were applied to food commodities previously treated with a monoterpenoid. In admixture experiments, the toxicity of SilicoSec^® + cinnamaldehyde (LD₅₀ = 42.73 ppm), SilicoSec^® + eugenol (LD₅₀ = 24.30 ppm), and Protect-It^® + eugenol (LD₅₀ = 2.60 ppm) was increased over DE alone against S. oryzae. Both substances showed a synergistic effect considering their co-toxicity coefficient relative to the LD₅₀-value. In contrast, we could not find any synergistic effects in experiments with C. maculatus. Here only Protect-It^® + cinnamaldehyde (LD₅₀ = 20.84 ppm) showed an additive effect while all other combinations of monoterpenoid and DE indicated antagonistic effects. In addition to contact insecticidal effects both monoterpenoids showed a strong fumigant action. The presented results indicate that the natural product DE has great potential to replace synthetic pesticides commonly used in stored product pest management. Efficacy of DE can be improved by adding certain monoterpenoids against certain insect pests.     

Identification of pests and assessment of their damage on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carapa procera</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lophira lanceolata</Emphasis> in Burkina Faso,West Africa

Nontimber forest products are a source of income for women in rural African communities. However, these products are frequently damaged by insect pests. The present study investigates the diversity and damage rates of insect pests that attack Carapa procera seeds and Lophira lanceolata fruits. The experiment was set up in western Burkina Faso and, for C. carapa, consisted of pests collected from seeds that had fallen to the ground and from stockpiled seeds. For L. lanceolata, pests were collected from fruits on the trees, and on the ground. The collected samples were sent to the laboratory to estimate the proportion of damaged seeds/fruits and rear the insects. The results showed that Ephestia spp., Tribolium castaneum, Oryzeaphilus spp., and Tenebroides mauritanicus were the pests of Carapa procera seeds and Lophira lanceolata fruits. Ephestia spp. was recorded as the main pest of both C. procera and L. lanceolata, whereas T. castaneum was only detected from seeds of L. lanceolata. For C. procera, the stocks were the most infested (29 %) by Ephestia spp. The infestation rate of fruits of L. lanceolata by Ephestia spp. on trees (31.42 ± 3.75 %) was less than the rate of fruits by T. castaneum on the ground (44.00 ± 3.5 %). The different body sizes of Ephestia spp. may indicate the occurrence of two putative species, one from C. procera and another one from L. lanceolata. This work provides important information that could contribute to the setting up of a local-scale sustainable management framework for oil tree pests in Burkina Faso and surrounding countries.     

Chemical composition,insecticidal and biochemical effects of essential oils of different plant species from Northern Egypt on the rice weevil,Sitophilus oryzae L.

The extensive use of synthetic insecticides and fumigants for control stored-product insects has led to the development of resistance. Essential oils from aromatic plants may provide proper alternatives to currently used insect control agents. Essential oils from 20 Egyptian plants were obtained by hydrodistillation. The chemical composition of the oils was identified by gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer. Fumigant and contact toxicities of the essential oils were evaluated against Sitophilus oryzae. The inhibitory effects of the essential oils on acetylcholinesterase and adenosine triphosphatases activities were examined. The oils were composed of monoterpene hydrocarbons (i.e., limonene, sabinene, β-pinene and γ-terpinene) and oxygenated monoterpenes (i.e., terpinen-4-ol, β–thujone, 4-terpineol, α-citral and 1,8-cineole) with the exception of the oil of Schinus terebinthifolius which was contained sesquiterpenes, and the oil of Vitex agnus-castus which contained similar amounts of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. In the fumigation assay, the oils of Origanum vulgare (LC₅₀ = 1.64 mg/L air), Citrus lemon (LC₅₀ = 9.89 mg/L air), Callistemon viminals (LC₅₀ = 16.17 mg/L air), Cupressus sempervirens (LC₅₀ = 17.16 mg/L air), and Citrus sinensis (LC₅₀ = 19.65 mg/L air) showed high toxicity to S. oryzae. In the contact assay, the oils of Artemisia judaica, C. viminals, and O. vulgare caused the highest toxicity to S. oryzae with LC₅₀ values of 0.08, 0.09, and 0.11 mg/cm², respectively. The oil of A. judaica (I₅₀ = 16.1 mg/L) invoked the highest inhibitory effect on AChE activity, while the oils of C. viminals and O. vulgare were the most potent inhibitors to ATPases activity with I₅₀ values of 4.69 and 6.07 mg/L, respectively. The results indicate that the essential oils of A. Judaica, O. vulgare, C. limon, C. viminals, and C. sempervirens could be applicable to the management of populations of S. oryzae.     

Male multiple matings and reproductive success in commodity-adapted strains of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus oryzae</Emphasis>

Multiple matings occur in many species of stored-grain insect pests, such as the rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (L.), with both female and male mating more than once and with more than one partner. Multiple female mating in S. oryzae increased lifetime fecundity by extending the period of time progeny were produced, but consequences of multiple male mating in S. oryzae were not yet studied although it is likely to increase male fitness by increasing offspring production. Here, the effects of polygynous mating on male mating behavior, success, and fitness were assessed in two strains of S. oryzae, one adapted to barley and another to wheat. Two insect strains were considered because they may differ in response depending on the host grain, which present distinct nutritional value to the insects. Mating by pairs formed between the two strains did not impact mating success, but wheat-adapted females exhibited longer mating duration, which was positively correlated with progeny production. Wheat-adapted males exhibited higher fertility than barley-adapted males. When male multiple matings were considered in successive polygynous matings, late matings led to lower non-cumulative values of progeny production, but higher cumulative performance, and wheat-adapted S. oryzae always performed better. Thus, male fitness and grain losses in wheat are higher than in barley, even when S. oryzae was adapted to the latter.     

Asymmetry of mating behaviour affects copulation success in two stored-product beetles

Lateralization (i.e. left–right asymmetries in the brain and behaviour) has been documented in all vertebrate classes, while evidences for invertebrates are limited. To the best of our knowledge, there is no information about behavioural asymmetries in the order Coleoptera. In this research, we investigated the lateralization of mating traits in two major pests of stored products: the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Both T. confusum and S. oryzae males showed population-level left-biased copulation approaches of potential mates. Interestingly, T. confusum and S. oryzae males performing left-biased copulation attempts achieved higher mating success over right-biased males. Furthermore, S. oryzae males periodically exhibited a typical head wagging behaviour, which consists of waving the rostrum laterally across the female thorax and then resting the rostrum on the mid thorax. This behaviour was right-biased, even in the majority of males that previously showed left-biased copulation attempts. The quantification of mating displays could allow comparisons with other strains, in order to evaluate the impact of a given host or of the rearing methods on the mating traits of S. oryzae and T. confusum. Overall, this is the first report of lateralization of mating traits in Coleoptera. Furthermore, this research adds basic knowledge to the reproductive behaviour of S. oryzae and T. confusum.     

Bio-rational control of red flour beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tribolium castaneum</Emphasis> (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in stored wheat with Calneem<Superscript>®</Superscript> oil derived from neem seeds

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), is one of the most serious secondary pests that feeds on a wide range of durable stored products including cereals, cereal products and other high value produce such as cocoa beans and dried fruits. Toxicity and protectant potential of Calneem^® oil derived from the seeds of the neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. towards T. castaneum were evaluated in stored wheat in the laboratory using contact toxicity, grain treatment, persistency, progeny emergence and repellency assays. Calneem^® contains about 0.3% azadirachtin as its major active ingredient. The Calneem^® was applied at six dosages (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0% v/v). The oil was emulsified with water using 0.07% soap. All dosages of Calneem^® oil were toxic and highly repellent to T. castaneum with an overall repellency in the range of 52–88%. The highest dosage of 3.0% of Calneem^® oil tested killed at least 90% of the beetles within 72 h on grain, and 88% mortality was obtained on filter paper. T. castaneum mortality was dose dependent. The development of eggs to adults on cracked wheat was significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited by Calneem^® oil treatments. The effectiveness of Calneem^® oil was significantly reduced by the length of storage after application. The results obtained suggest good potential for the practical use of Calneem^® oil as grain protectant for stored product pest control. The use of plant materials such as neem oil may be a safe, cost-effective method of grain preservation against pest infestation amongst low-resource poor farmers who store small amounts of grains.     

Different population performances of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Frankliniella occidentalis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thrips hawaiiensis</Emphasis> on flowers of two horticultural plants

Gardenia jasminoides and Rosa chinensis are economically important horticultural plants in China. Frankliniella occidentalis and Thrips hawaiiensis are serious coexisting pests that previously demonstrated opposite population trends on G. jasminoides and R. chinensis flowers. To further study the different performances between F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis, we investigated their population dynamics in the field (for 5 years) and their life history characteristics on the two flowers in the laboratory. In the field, the density of F. occidentalis was lower than that of T. hawaiiensis on G. jasminoides but was higher than that of T. hawaiiensis on R. chinensis. Under laboratory conditions, F. occidentalis showed significantly slower development, and lower survival and fecundity levels than T. hawaiiensis on G. jasminoides, but the opposite was true on R. chinensis. Significant differences in the net reproductive rate (R ₀) between F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis were observed, with respective values of 38.66 ± 2.85 and 47.91 ± 2.70 on G. jasminoides, and 55.64 ± 2.15 and 32.45 ± 2.16 on R. chinensis. The intrinsic rates of increase (r _m ) of F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis were 0.156 ± 0.008 and 0.198 ± 0.007, respectively, on G. jasminoides, and 0.172 ± 0.003 and 0.165 ± 0.002, respectively, on R. chinensis. Thus, the performances of both thrips with respect to population size in the laboratory were in accordance with those in the field, suggesting that the innate capacity for insect population increases may directly impact their population dynamics in fields. Thus, the population performance of different thrips species on flowers is species-dependent, which could be exploited in thrips control programs by breeding pest-resistant cultivars.     

The impact of the environmental factors on the photosynthetic activity of common pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis>) in spring and in autumn in the region of Eastern Siberia

The taiga coniferous forests of the Siberian region are the main carbon sinks in the forest ecosystems. Quantitatively, the size of the carbon accumulation is determined by the photosynthetic productivity, which is strongly influenced by environmental factors. As a result, an assessment of the relationship between environmental factors and photosynthetic productivity makes it possible to calculate and even predict carbon sinks in coniferous forests at the regional level. However, at various stages of the vegetative period, the force of the connection between environmental conditions and the productivity of photosynthesis may change. In this research, correlations between the photosynthetic activity of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with the environmental conditions were compared in spring and in autumn. In spring, close positive correlation of the maximum daily net photosynthesis was identified with only one environmental factor. For different years, correlations were for soil temperature (r_s = 0.655, p = 0.00315) or available soil water supply (r_s = 0.892, p = 0.0068). In autumn within different years, significant correlation was shown with two (temperature of air and soil; r_s = 0.789 and 0.896, p = 0.00045 and 0.000006, respectively) and four factors: temperature of air (r_s = 0.749, p = 0.00129) and soil (r_s = 0.84, p = 0.00000), available soil water supply (r_s = 0.846, p = 0.00013) and irradiance (r_s = 0.826, p = 0.000001). Photosynthetic activity has a weaker connection with changes in environmental factors in the spring, as compared to autumn. This is explained by the multidirectional influence of environmental conditions on photosynthesis in this period and by the necessity of earlier photosynthesis onset, despite the unfavorable conditions. This data may be useful for predicting the flow of carbon in dependence on environmental factors in this region in spring and in autumn.     

Mating patterns of the gum arabic tree (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia senegal synonym Senegalia senegal</Emphasis>) in two different habitats

Understanding the variation of mating patterns in disturbed habitats provide insight into the evolutionary potential of plant species and how they persist over time. However, this phenomenon is poorly understood in tropical dryland tree species. In the present study, we investigated how Acacia senegal reproduces in two different environmental contexts in Kenya. Open-pollinated progeny arrays of 10 maternal trees from each environmental context were genotyped using 12 nuclear microsatellite markers. Overall, A. senegal displayed a predominantly allogamous mating pattern. However, higher multilocus outcrossing rate (tm) was found in Lake Bogoria (tm = 1.00) than in Kampi ya Moto population (tm = 0.949). Higher biparental inbreeding (t _m  ? t _s  = 0.116) and correlation of outcrossed paternity (rp = 0.329) was found in Kampi ya Moto than in Lake Bogoria population (t _m  ? t _s  = 0.074, rp = 0.055), showing the occurrence of mating among relatives. Coefficient of coancestry (Θ = 0.208) showed that full-sibs constitute about 21% of the offspring in Kampi ya Moto population compared to about 14% (Θ = 0.136) in Lake Bogoria population. The results demonstrate that low adult tree density of A. senegal may be promoting seed production through consanguineous mating and suggest that man-made disturbance can affect mating patterns of the species. Despite these mating differences, trees from both populations can contribute as seed source for conservational plans, and to support effective genetic conservation and artificial regeneration programs of A. senegal. We suggest collection of seeds from at least 42 and 63 trees in Lake Bogoria and Kampi ya Moto populations, respectively, to retain a progeny array with a total effective population size of 150.     

First report on Meloidogyne chitwoodi hatching inhibition activity of essential oils and essential oils fractions

The Columbia root-knot nematode (CRKN), Meloidogyne chitwoodi, is an EPPO A2 type quarantine pest since 1998. This nematode causes severe damage in economically important crops such as potato and tomato, making agricultural products unacceptable for the fresh market and food processing. Commonly used nematicidal synthetic chemicals are often environmentally unsafe. Essential oils (EOs) may constitute safer alternatives against RKN. EOs, isolated from 56 plant samples, were tested against CRKN hatching, in direct contact bioassays. Some of the most successful EOs were fractionated and the hydrocarbon molecules (HM) and oxygen-containing molecules (OCM) fractions tested separately. 24 EOs displayed very strong hatching inhibitions (≥90 %) at 2 µL mL^?1 and were further tested at lower concentrations. Dysphaniaambrosioides, Filipendula ulmaria, Ruta graveolens, Satureja montana and Thymbra capitata EOs revealed the lowest EC₅₀ values (<0.15 µL mL^?1). The main compounds of these EOs, namely 2-undecanone, ascaridol, carvacrol, isoascaridol, methyl salicylate, p-cymene and/or γ-terpinene, were putatively considered responsible for CRKN hatching inhibition. S. montana and T. capitata OCM fractions showed hatching inhibitions higher than HM fractions. The comparison of EO and corresponding fractions EC₅₀ values suggests interactions between OCM and HM fractions against CRKN hatching. These species EOs showed to be potential environmentally friendly CRKN hatching inhibitors; nonetheless, bioactivity should be considered globally, since its HM and OCM fractions may contribute, diversely, to the full anti-hatching activity.     

Genetic diversity in two threatened species in Vietnam: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Taxus chinensis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Taxus wallichiana</Emphasis>

Taxus chinensis and T. wallichiana in have been threatened in their distribution areas in recent decades because of their over-exploitation and reduction and destruction of native habitats. Determining the genetic diversity in populations of the two species will provide guidelines for their protection and preservation. Two hundred and fifteen trees from six populations of T. chinensis and 150 sampled trees of T. wallichiana were sampled. Six microsatellite primer pairs selected from 16 primer pairs were used to investigate genetic variation at the population and species levels. Five yielded polymorphic alleles, and among the 13 putative alleles amplified, 11 were polymorphic (accounting for 76.33 %).Shannon’s information index (I) and percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) (I = 0.202 and PPB = 67.22 % for T. chinensis; I = 0.217 and PPB = 65.03 % for T. wallichiana). Both species had low levels of genetic diversity (mean H _o = 0.107, H _e = 0.121 for T. chinensis; H _o = 0.095, H _e = 0.109 for T. wallichiana). Genetic differentiation among populations was higher (F _ST = 0.189) for T. chinensis and lower (0.156) for T. wallichiana, indicating limited gene flow (Nm) among populations for T. chinensis (0.68) and T. wallichiana (0.65). Variation among individuals of T. chinensis was 63.59 and 73.12 % for T. wallichiana. Thus, the threatened status of the two conifers is related to a lack of genetic diversity. All populations are isolated in small forest remnants. An ex situ conservation site should be established with a new population for these species that comprises all the genetic groups for the best chance to improve their fitness under environmental stresses.     

Artificially applied plant volatile organic compounds modify the behavior of a pest with no adverse effect on its natural enemies in the field

The use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) derived from plants to manipulate insect pest behavior can be applied in an integrated pest management strategy (IPM) using a combination of attractive and repulsive stimuli. The “push–pull” strategy was developed on this idea in order to disturb and modify the distribution and abundance of pests to protect crops and reduce the use of agrochemicals. This field experiment investigates, in a “push–pull” context using broccoli as a target crop and Chinese cabbage as a pull component, the stimulo-deterrent effect of five synthetic VOCs (dimethyl disulfide, linalool, geraniol, eucalyptol and citronellol) on the oviposition of the cabbage root fly Delia radicum. With the exception of linalool, all compounds tested had a significant effect in the field and eucalyptol showed the most promising results, reducing oviposition on broccoli by 45 %. Moreover, eucalyptol was the only VOC able to reduce the final infestation of D. radicum, i.e., the number of pupae. The other VOCs reduced oviposition by 20–30 %. No adverse effect of the treatments was found on major parasitoids (Trybliographa rapae and Aleochara bipustulata) and potential predators of D. radicum. This study highlights the potential of VOCs as deterrent stimuli against agricultural pests in the field.     

Susceptibility of selected stored product insects to a combination treatment of pyriproxyfen and novaluron

There are many published studies of either insect growth regulators (IGR) or chitinase inhibitors applied directly to larvae of stored product insects or incorporated into their diets, but few studies evaluating efficacy of IGRs or chitinase inhibitors applied alone or in combination with a surface for residual control. Tests were conducted to evaluate susceptibility of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), the red flour beetle, Trogoderma variabile (Ballion), the warehouse beetle, and Dermestes maculatus (DeGeer), the hide beetle, to Tekko^® Pro which contained the IGR pyriproxyfen and the chitinase inhibitor novaluron as active ingredients. Efficacy was assessed by adult emergence of exposed immatures, an index based on development of those exposed immatures, and progeny production of exposed adults. Concrete arenas were treated with the label rate of the insecticide applied to a surface, and bioassays were conducted at 0–16 weeks post-treatment. No exposed T. castaneum eggs or larvae reached the adult stage and index values for exposed eggs and larvae remained near the minimum. Adult emergence of T. variable from eggs or larvae did not exceed 25% for the first 8 weeks of the test, but at the end of the test at 16 weeks adult emergence was 44 and 71%, respectively, for eggs and larvae. No eggs or larvae of D. maculatus emerged as adults, but excessive cannibalization in untreated controls occurred throughout the test. Results show that Tekko^® Pro will give residual control of T. castaneum and T. variabile, and could replace older conventional neurotoxic insecticides for management of stored product insects.     

Nematotoxic activity of essential oils from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monarda</Emphasis> species

Bioactivity of essential oils (EOs) from Monarda species has never been investigated on phytoparasitic nematodes. In this study, the EOs from two Italian ecotypes of Monarda didyma and M. fistulosa and their main compounds, carvacrol, γ-terpinene, o-cymene, and thymol, were evaluated for their in vitro activity on the infective stages of phytoparasitic nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus vulnus, as well as on M. incognita egg hatch. Soil treatments with the two EOs were also investigated for their suppressiveness on M. incognita on tomato. Both EOs were strongly active on M. incognita juveniles, as a only 1.0 μL mL^?1 LC50 value was evaluated after a 24-h exposure to both EOs, whereas a lower activity was recorded on P. vulnus (15.7 and 12.5 μL mL^?1 LC50 values for M. didyma and M. fistulosa EOs, respectively). Among the EOs’ main compounds, carvacrol was highly active also at a short exposure in low concentrations, whereas γ-terpinene and thymol were much less active on both nematode species and o-cymene showed a discrete activity on P. vulnus only at the highest concentration. Hatch percent of M. incognita eggs treated with M. didyma and M. fistulosa EOs was always significantly lower than in water or in Tween 20 and Oxamyl solutions. In the experiment in soil, the multiplication of M. incognita and gall formation on tomato roots was significantly reduced by soil treatments with both EOs. The strong nematicidal activity of both Monarda EOs may suggest them as potential sources of new sustainable nematicidal products.     

Nutrients leaching from green leaves of three potential agroforestry tree species

Nutrient (NH₄, PO₄ and K) leaching from oven dried green leaves of Emblica officinalis Gaerten, Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. and Moringa oleifera Lam.were investigated in laboratory condition. Oven-dried green leaves were immersed in demineralized distilled water for 8 days. Electrical conductivity (EC), Total dissolved solids (TDS) and nutrients (NH₄, PO₄ and K) of leaching water samples were measured at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, 144, and 192 h of intervals. All these species showed an increasing trend for EC and TDS in leachate and comparatively higher EC and TDS were observed in E. officinalis, which is followed, by S. grandiflora and M. oleifera. Significantly high amount (P < 0.05) of NH₄ was leached from S. grandiflora and PO₄ from M. oleifera. But, both S. grandiflora and M. oleifera leached significantly higher (P < 0.05) K than E. officinalis. Within the first 0.25 h, 100 % and 82 % of NH₄ and 68 % and 74 % of K were leached from leaves of S. grandiflora and M. oleifera respectively. S. grandiflora and M. oleifera leached 100 % of PO₄ within 6 h. The concentrtions of NH₄, PO₄ and K in the leachate from E. officinalis, S. grandiflora and M. oleifera were not significantly different (P > 0.05). The green leaves of S. grandiflora and M.oleifera can be a potential source of NH₄, PO₄ and K for a quick nutrient supplement to the agricultural crops in agroforestry practices.     

Live-weight gains of Holstein × Zebu heifers grazing a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cratylia argentea</Emphasis>/Toledo-grass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brachiaria brizantha</Emphasis>) association in the Mexican humid tropics

The legume Cratylia argentea associated to Brachiaria brizantha—Toledo-grass (Bb + Ca) and Toledo-grass alone (Bb) were evaluated under grazing conditions by Holstein × Zebu heifers. Three evaluation periods during three consecutive years, were performed. We measured, daily live-weight gains of heifers (DWG, g/day); biomass dry matter (BDM, kg/ha) at beginning and end of each grazing period. On plant samples, were measured percentages of crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), lignin, in situ DM degradability (ISDMD), and voluntary biomass DM intake (VBI, g/LW^0.75) using the Cr₂O₃/in situ indigestibility technique. A completely randomized design was applied, using heifers as experimental units for DWG gains and VBI. At the beginning of the grazing, the BDM for Bb + Ca and Bb–considering the three periods-averaged, 3065 and 936 kg/ha, respectively. Crude protein content of C. argentea was around 20 %; and for Bb + Ca or Bb, ranged from 8.7 to 4.6 %. In either treatment, in situ DM degradability averaged 72.6 % (P ≥ 0.05), regardless of the botanical component type. Biomass DM intake was 83.02 (Bb + Ca) and 89.22 (Bb) g/LW^0.75. The DWG gains (g/heifer) for Bb + Ca and Bb were (per period): 829 and 574 (first); 469 and 118 (second); and 534 and 508 (third). This study showed that the Bb + Ca association was better to improve the daily gain of F1 Holstein × Zebu heifers, as compared to Bb alone. Also, C. argentea associated to a low to medium-quality grass improved the nutritional value of the diet without affecting the biomass DM intake.     

Soil organic carbon stocks and fractions in different orchards of eastern plateau and hill region of India

Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays an important role in soil fertility and productivity. It occurs in soil in labile and non-labile forms that help in maintaining the soil health. An investigation was undertaken to evaluate the dynamics of total soil organic carbon (C _tot), oxidisable organic carbon (C _oc), very labile carbon (C frac ₁), labile carbon (C frac ₂), less labile carbon (C frac ₃), non-labile carbon (C frac ₄), microbial biomass carbon (C _mic) and SOC sequestration in a 6-year-old fruit orchards. The mango, guava and litchi orchards caused an enrichment of C _tot by 17.2, 12.6 and 11 %, respectively, over the control. The mango orchard registered highest significant increase of 20.7, 13.5 and 17.4 % in C frac ₁, C frac ₂ and C frac ₄, respectively, over control. There is greater accumulation of all the C fractions in the surface soil (0–0.30 m). The maximum total active carbon pool was 36.2 Mg C ha^?1 in mango orchard and resulted in 1.2 times higher than control. The passive pool of carbon constituted about 42.4 % of C _tot and registered maximum in the mango orchard. The maximum C _mic was 370 mg C kg^?1 in guava orchard and constituted 4.2 % of C _tot. The carbon management index registered 1.2 (mango orchard)- and 1.13 (guava and litchi orchard)-fold increase over control. The mango orchard registered highest carbon build rate of 1.53 Mg C ha^?1 year^?1 and resulted in 17.3 % carbon build-up over control. Among the carbon fractions, C frac ₁ was highly correlated (r = 0.567**) with C _mic.     

Tree leaves of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salix babylonica</Emphasis> extract as a natural anthelmintic for small-ruminant farms in a semiarid region in Mexico

The study aimed to test the potential anthelmintic activity of Salix babylonica (SB) extract for the control of gastrointestinal and pulmonary parasites in sheep and goats under field conditions. A representative sample of 20 % of all animals reared in 8 sheep and 7 goat farms was used in the study. Animals from each farm were randomly selected for a total number of 93 sheep and 75 goats. Animals suffered a natural gastrointestinal nematode infection and had never been treated with chemical anthelmintic drugs. The SB extract (20 mL) was orally administered weekly before the morning feeding to each animal for 60 days. Fecal eggs or oocysts were counted at 0, 1, 20, 40, and 60 days after starting the extract administration. Differences (P < 0.01) in the fecal oocyst and egg output of Eimeria, Dictyocaulus, and Moniezia were observed between sheep and goats. In addition, the treatment influenced (P < 0.05) egg outputs of Cooperia, Dictyocaulus, and Trichuris. Fecal egg or oocyst counts of Haemonchus contortus, Eimeria, Cooperia, Chabertia, Dictyocaulus, Moniezia, and Ostertagia were time-dependent (P < 0.05). For sheep, administration of SB decreased (P < 0.05) the fecal eggs count of H. contortus, Cooperia, Chabertia, Dictyocaulus, Moniezia, and Trichuris. After 20 days of treatment, H. contortus, Cooperia, or Moniezia were not detected. For goats, SB reduced (P < 0.05) the fecal egg counts of H. contortus, Cooperia, Chabertia, and Moniezia. Moreover, decreases were observed (P < 0.05) for Chabertia, Trichostrongylus, and Ostertagia. Eggs of H. contortus and Moniezia were not present in the feces after 1 day of administration of the extract. It could be concluded that the weekly administration of SB extract at 20 mL per animal can be used to treat gastrointestinal and lung nematodes of small ruminants in organic and traditional farming systems of tropical regions.     

Effects of soil drought stress on photosynthetic gas exchange traits and chlorophyll fluorescence in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Forsythia suspensa</Emphasis>

To clarify the changes in plant photosynthesis and mechanisms underlying those responses to gradually increasing soil drought stress and reveal quantitative relationships between photosynthesis and soil moisture, soil water conditions were controlled in greenhouse pot experiments using 2-year-old seedlings of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl. Photosynthetic gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence variables were measured and analyzed under 13 gradients of soil water content. Net photosynthetic rate (P _N), stomatal conductance (g _s), and water-use efficiency (W _UE) in the seedlings exhibited a clear threshold response to the relative soil water content (R _SWC). The highest P _N and W _UE occurred at R _SWC of 51.84 and 64.10%, respectively. Both P _N and W _UE were higher than the average levels at 39.79% ≤ R _SWC ≤ 73.04%. When R _SWC decreased from 51.84 to 37.52%, P _N, g _s, and the intercellular CO₂ concentration (C _i) markedly decreased with increasing drought stress; the corresponding stomatal limitation (L _s) substantially increased, and nonphotochemical quenching (N _PQ) also tended to increase, indicating that within this range of soil water content, excessive excitation energy was dispersed from photosystem II (PSII) in the form of heat, and the reduction in P _N was primarily due to stomatal limitation. While R _SWC decreased below 37.52%, there were significant decreases in the maximal quantum yield of PSII photochemistry (F _v/F _m) and the effective quantum yield of PSII photochemistry (ΦPSII), photochemical quenching (q _P), and N _PQ; in contrast, minimal fluorescence yield of the dark-adapted state (F ₀) increased markedly. Thus, the major limiting factor for the P _N reduction changed to a nonstomatal limitation due to PSII damage. Therefore, an R _SWC of 37.52% is the maximum allowable water deficit for the normal growth of seedlings of F. suspensa, and a water content lower than this level should be avoided in field soil water management. Water contents should be maintained in the range of 39.79% ≤ R _SWC ≤ 73.04% to ensure normal function of the photosynthetic apparatus and high levels of photosynthesis and efficiency in F. suspensa.     

Chemical composition,antioxidant and antibacterial activities of extracts from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Schinus molle</Emphasis> wood branch growing in Egypt

In the present work, for the first time, the chemical components of essential oils (EOs) and extracts from wood branch (WB) resulted from the tree pruning wastes of Schinus molle L. grown in Egypt were evaluated for their antioxidant and antibacterial activities. EOs, methanol (ME), dichloromethane (DCME) and water (WE) extracts as antioxidant and antibacterial activities were measured. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents as well as analysis of extracts by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) were reported. The major components in EOs were α-elemol, β-pinene, and α-phellandrene, in ME were 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-cyano-4-(N-benzylpiperazino)-2H-pyran-2-one, and 2-naphthalene methanol, decahydro-α,α,4a-trimethyl-8-methylene, in DCME were 12-methyl-E,E-3,13-octadecadien-1-ol, and 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, dioctyl ester, and in WE were β-eudesmol, and (Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester. The highest total antioxidant activity was found with EOs (90 ± 1.23 %) and WE (86.30 ± 1.40 %). The lowest IC₅₀ values of 13.11 ± 3.00, and 12.66 ± 2.15 μg/mL were found with WE and EOs, respectively. EOs and WE were observed to have good antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Sarcina lutea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Micrococcus luteus. In conclusion, the Schinus molle L. WB EOs and extracts might, indeed, be used as a potential source for pharmaceutical or food industries.