Intrinsic innervation of the ileocaecal junction in the horse: Preliminary study

Reason for performing study: In horses, morpho‐functional studies related to the enteric nervous system (ENS) controlling the sphincters are lacking. Objectives: To investigate immunohistochemically the morphology, distribution, density, phenotypes and projections of neurons controlling the ileocaecal junction (ICJ). Methods: Two young horses were anaesthetised and underwent midline laparotomy. The neuronal retrograde fluorescent tracer Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the wall of the ICJ. A post surgical survival time of 30 days was used. Following euthanasia, the ileum and a small portion of caecum were removed. Cryosections were used to investigate the immunoreactivity (IR) of the neurons innervating the ICJ for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), substance P (SP), calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) and neurofilament NF200kDa (NF). Results: Ileal FB‐labelled neurons innervating the ICJ were located in the myenteric plexus (MP) and submucosal plexus (SMP) up to 48 cm and 28 cm, respectively, from the point of the FB injections. Descending MP and SMP neurons were nitrergic (54 ± 11% and 68 ± 4%, respectively), cholinergic (60 ± 19% and 82 ± 11%, respectively), NF‐IR (54 ± 9% and 78 ± 21%, respectively), and SP‐IR (about 20% in both the plexuses). CGRP‐IR was expressed only by SMP descending neurons (45 ± 21%). In both the plexuses descending neurons coexpressing nNOS‐and ChAT‐IR were also observed (25 ± 11% and 61 ± 27%, respectively). Conclusions: The presence of ileal long projecting neurons innervating the ICJ suggests that they are critical for its modulation. Consequently, in bowel diseases in which the resection of the terminal jejunum and proximal ileum are required, it is preferable, whenever possible, to conserve the major portion of the ileum. Potential relevance: The knowledge of the phenotype of ENS neurons of the ileum might be helpful for developing pharmaceutical treatment of the ICJ motility disorders.     

Chemical Coding of Sensory Neurons Supplying the Hip Joint Capsule in the Sheep

Immunohistochemical properties of nerve fibres supplying the joint capsule were previously described in many mammalian species, but the localization of sensory neurons supplying this structure was studied only in laboratory animals, the rat and rabbit. However, there is no comprehensive data on the chemical coding of sensory neurons projecting to the hip joint capsule (HJC). The aim of this study was to establish immunohistochemical properties of sensory neurons supplying HJC in the sheep. The study was carried out on 10 sheep, weighing about 30–40 kg. The animals were injected with a retrograde neural tracer Fast Blue (FB) into HJC. Sections of the spinal ganglia (SpG) with FB‐positive (FB+) neurons were stained using antibodies against calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) substance P (SP), pituitary adenylate cyclase‐activating peptide (PACAP), nitric oxide synthase (n‐NOS), neuropeptide Y (NPY), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), Leu‐5‐enkephalin (Leu‐Enk), galanin (GAL) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VACHT). The vast majority of FB+ neurons supplying HJC was found in the ganglia from the 5th lumbar to the 2nd sacral. Immunohistochemistry revealed that most of these neurons were immunoreactive to CGRP or SP (80.7 ± 8.0% or 56.4 ± 4.8%, respectively) and many of them stained for PACAP or GAL (52.9 ± 2.9% or 50.6 ± 19.7%, respectively). Other populations of FB+ neurons were those immunoreactive to n‐NOS (37.8 ± 9.7%), NPY (34.6 ± 6.7%), VIP (28.7 ± 4.8%), Leu‐Enk (27.1 ± 14.6) and VACHT (16.7 ± 9.6).     

Effect of spironolactone on diuresis and urine sodium and potassium excretion in healthy dogs

ObjectivesTo document the diuretic effect of different oral doses of spironolactone (SP) in healthy dogs.BackgroundSP is currently mentioned as a diuretic agent in the dog. However, the recommended doses were empirically defined and their corresponding diuretic effect has never been documented in dogs.Animals, materials and methodsEight adult Beagle dogs were used for two separate 2 * 2 cross-over designs. In the first cross-over, 4 dogs received SP orally for 8 days at 1 and 2 mg/kg per day. In the second cross-over the 4 other dogs received SP similarly, but at 4 and 8 mg/kg per day. Dogs were weighed on the first and last day of each period. Plasma SP and canrenone (the main active metabolite of SP) were assayed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Daily water consumption, urine weight, urine specific gravity, and urine excretion of sodium and potassium were measured during the SP treatment.ResultsTwo hours after SP administration, SP was metabolized into canrenone. A significant 14 and 22% decrease in urine potassium excretion was observed at 1 and 2 mg/kg, respectively, but not at the two other dose levels. Daily water consumption, urine weight, urine specific gravity, and urine excretion of sodium were not significantly altered by the SP treatment regardless of dose.ConclusionsRepeated oral administration of SP at 1, 2, 4 or 8 mg/kg for 8 days had no effect on water and sodium diuresis in healthy dogs.     

Evaluation the Clinitek status™ automated dipstick analysis device for semiquantitative testing of canine urine

The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate the Clinitek status™ analyser using Multistix10SG™/Microalbustix™ dipsticks (all: Siemens Dx) for canine urine (n = 101) compared to reference methods: visual reading (Combur9 dipstick, Roche), refractometry, microscopy, and quantitative protein/creatinine analysis (Pentra400, AxonLab). The automated analyses were done twice and visual tests were performed by two examiners.An excellent to good concordance was demonstrated between the first/second analysis with the Multistix10SG and the Combur9 dipstick, respectively with Cohen’s κ-values ranging from 0.776 to 1.000. Agreement between both dipsticks was good for glucose (κ = 0.753), blood (κ = 0.793), protein (κ = 0.788), and moderate for bilirubin (κ = 0.431) and ketones (κ = 0.540). In 6/101 specimens, false positive ketone reactions were obtained with the Multistix10SG™. Multistix10SG™ could not be used for determination of pyuria or specific gravity. Semiquantitative/quantitative protein results correlated well (ρ = 0.90) and creatinine measurements moderately (ρ = 0.76). Due to automated data transmission to the laboratory information system, the Clinitek status™ is of advantage in veterinary laboratories/clinics.     

Immunohistochemical properties of motoneurons supplying the trapezius muscle in the rat

Combined retrograde tracing (using fluorescent tracer Fast blue) and double-labelling immunofluorescence were used to study the distribution and immunohistochemical characteristics of neurons projecting to the trapezius muscle in mature male rats (n = 9). As revealed by retrograde tracing, Fast blue-positive (FB+) neurons were located within the ambiguous nucleus and accessory nucleus of the grey matter of the spinal cord. Immunohistochemistry revealed that nearly all the neurons were cholinergic in nature [choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-positive]. Retrogradely labelled neurons displayed also immunoreactivities to calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP; approximately 60% of FB+ neurons), nitric oxide synthase (NOS; 50%), substance P (SP; 35%), Leu5-Enkephalin (LEnk; 10%) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP; 5%). The analysis of double-stained tissue sections revealed that all CGRP-, VIP- and LEnk-immunoreactive FB+ perikarya were simultaneously ChAT-positive. The vast majority of the neurons expressing SP- or NOS-immunoreactivity were also cholinergic in nature; however, solitary somata were ChAT-negative. FB+ perikarya were surrounded by numerous varicose nerve fibres (often forming basket-like structures) immunoreactive to LEnk or SP. They were also associated with some CGRP-, NOS- and neuropeptide Y-positive nerve terminals.     

Vaccination with a genotype 1 modified live vaccine against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus significantly reduces viremia,viral shedding and transmission of the virus in a quasi-natural experimental model

The present study assessed the efficacy of vaccination against genotype 1 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in terms of reduction of the transmission. Ninety-eight 3-week-old piglets were divided in two groups: V (n = 40) and NV (n = 58) that were housed separately. V animals were vaccinated with a commercial genotype 1 PRRSV vaccine while NV were kept as controls. On day 35 post-vaccination, 14 NV pigs were separated and inoculated intranasally with 2 ml of a heterologous genotype 1 PRRSV isolate (“seeder” pigs, SP). The other V and NV animals were distributed in groups of 5 pigs each. Two days later, one SP was introduced into each pen to expose V and NV to PRRSV. Sentinel pigs were allocated in adjacent pens. Follow-up was of 21 days. All NV (30/30) became viremic after contact with SP while only 53% of V pigs were detected so (21/40, p < 0.05). Vaccination shortened viremia (12.2 ± 4 versus 3.7 ± 3.4 days in NV and V pigs, respectively, p < 0.01). The 50% survival time for becoming infected (Kaplan–Meier) for V was 21 days (CI_95% = 14.1–27.9) compared to 7 days (CI_95% = 5.2–8.7) for NV animals (p < 0.01). These differences were reflected in the R value as well: 2.78 (CI_95% = 2.13–3.43) for NV and 0.53 (CI_95% = 0.19–0.76) for V pigs (p < 0.05). All sentinel pigs (10/10) in pens adjacent to NV + SP pens got infected compared to 1/4 sentinel pigs allocated contiguous to a V + SP pen. These data show that vaccination of piglets significantly decrease parameters related to PRRSV transmission.     

Origin and chemical coding of primary afferent neurones supplying the prostate of the dog

Retrograde tracing technique combined with the double-fluorescent immunohistochemistry were used to investigate the distribution and chemical coding of primary afferent neurones supplying the canine prostate. After the injection of Fast Blue (FB) into the prostatic tissue retrogradely-labelled (FB(+)) primary afferent neurones were localized in bilateral L(1)-Ca(1) dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Statistical analysis using anova test showed that there are two major sources of afferent prostate innervation. The vast majority of prostate-supplying primary afferent neurones were located in bilateral L(2)-L(4) DRG (56.9 +/- 0.6%). The second source of the afferent innervation of canine prostate were bilateral S(1)-Ca(1) DRG (40.6 +/- 1.0%). No statistically significant differences were found between average number of FB(+) neurones localized in the left and right DRG (49.5 +/- 1.7 and 50.5 +/- 1.7%, respectively). Immunohistochemistry revealed that FB(+) primary afferent neurones contain several neuropeptides in various combinations. In the prostate-supplying neurones of lumbar and sacro-caudal DRG the immunoreactivity to substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) was found most frequently (50 +/- 3.7 and 37.3 +/- 1.9%, respectively). Both in the lumbar and sacro-caudal DRG, considerable population of FB(+) neurones immunoreactive neither to SP nor CGRP were also found (23 +/- 2.6 and 32.8 +/- 2.3%, respectively). In the lumbar DRG 10.7 +/- 1.1% of SP-immunoreactive FB(+) neurones also contained galanin (GAL). In 9.2 +/- 2.2% of the prostate-supplying primary afferent neurones located in the sacro-caudal DRG the co-localization of SP and GAL was also reported. Results of the retrograde tracing experiment demonstrated for the first time sources of afferent innervation of the canine prostate. Double immunohistochemistry revealed that many of the prostate-supplying primary afferent neurones express some of sensory neuropeptides which presumably may be involved in nociception and some pathological processes like inflammation or nerve injury.     

Distribution of neurons supplying the porcine mammary gland

The distribution of neurons projecting to the mammary gland was investigated by using the retrograde tracing method in juvenile pigs (n = 12). Fluorescent retrograde tracer Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the nipple (n = 3) or parenchyma (n = 3) of the second, right thoracic mamma or into the nipple (n = 3) and parenchyma (n = 3) of the last, right abdominal mamma. FB-positive (FB+) mammary gland-projecting neurons were found in some right dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and sympathetic chain ganglia (SChG) only. After injection of the tracer into the second, right thoracic mamma, FB+ neurons were observed in Th9-Th12 DRG but most of them were located in Th11 and Th12 ganglia. As concerns SChG, FB+ neurons were found in Th1-Th4, Th7-Th14 and L1-L4 ganglia. The vast majority of them were located in Th10 and Th11 SChG, which appeared to be the main sources of efferent innervation of this mamma. Neurons projecting to the last right abdominal mamma were found in L1-L3 DRG and L1-L4 SChG but most of them were located in L1-L2 ganglia and L1-L2 ganglia, respectively. This study for the first time has disclosed the localization of neurons supplying the mammary gland in larger domestic animal species, the pig, by using the retrograde tracing method.     

Immune response of AA broilers to IBV H120 vaccine and sodium new houttuyfonate

In this report, 120 healthy one-day-old AA broilers were divided into six groups. Groups 1–4 received 100, 200, 400 and 800 mg/L of sodium new houttuyfonate (SNH) with IB vaccine H120 respectively. Group 5 received PBS and H120 and group 6 IL-2 and H120. The chickens were inoculated at 7 and 14 days of age. On 0, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 post first vaccination, the dynamic changes of peripheral lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine assays and serum antibody titers were assayed respectively by MTT method, ELISA and hemagglutination inhibition assay (HI). The results showed that sodium new houttuyfonate significantly raised IB antibody titer in the chickens and also markedly promoted lymphocyte proliferation. The serum levels of IFN-γ and IL-4 in groups 1–4 were higher than those in groups 5 and 6. Hence, the immunologic enhancement of SNH was slightly superior to that of IL-2 adjuvant. Following challenge with IBV, chickens inoculated with SNH showed fewer and less severe clinical signs, lower death rate and less kidney pathology, as compared to those of the control groups. It indicated that SNH could enhance immune responses and increase protection against virulent IBV challenge in chickens.     

The coexistence of calcitonin gene-related peptide and substance P in pericellular arborization and satellite cell of goat trigeminal and nodose ganglia

Pericellular arborization is reported to be the self-regulating structure in sensory ganglia. Although the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) or substance P (SP) immunoreactive pericellular arborization appeared in the sensory ganglia, there was no available information that CGRP and SP colocalize in this structure. As the attempts to resolve the question described above, the present study was undertaken to identify the coexistence of CGRP and SP in pericellular arborizations of the goat nodose and trigeminal ganglia by double immunohistochemistry. As the results show, CGRP immunoreactivity was present in every pericellular arborization containing SP immunoreactivity in trigeminal ganglia, however, pericellular network containing CGRP or SP immunoreactivity was not present in nodose ganglia. Unexpectedly, a few small satellite elements were observed to contain intense CGRP and SP immunoreactivity at the periphery of CGRP and SP immunoreactive neurones in nodose ganglia. Therefore, these results suggest that CGRP and SP coexist in pericellular arborizations, and that satellite cell as well as pericellular arborization may be involved in intraganglionic regulation of goat sensory ganglia.     

Neurochemical properties of aquaporin 1-expressing sensory neurons from the ovine trigeminal ganglion

Aims of the present study were to investigate the distribution and morphology of aquaporin 1-immunoreactive (AQP1-IR) neurons in the sensory ganglia of the sheep. Double immunohistochemical staining was applied to figure out whether substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and galanin are present in AQP1-bearing primary afferent neurons. The expression of AQP1 was present only in trigeminal ganglion, whereas in nodose ganglion, jugular ganglion as well as C(1) -C(7) dorsal root ganglia no presence of AQP1 was found. In trigeminal ganglion, 15.4 ± 2.3% of Hu C/D-IR neurons (pan-neuronal marker) showed the presence of AQP1. The vast majority of AQP1-IR trigeminal sensory neurons (approximately 69.6 ± 3.3%, n = 5) were classified as middle in size, 28.6 ± 3.0% of AQP1-IR neurons were small and only 1.8 ± 0.6% of AQP1-positive neurons were large in size. Amongst the population of AQP1-IR trigeminal neurons as many as 58.5 ± 3.9% were immunopositive to SP, 30.7 ± 2.3% showed the presence of CGRP and 10.9 ± 0.2% coexpressed galanin. In trigeminal ganglion, SP-IR as well as CGRP-IR (but not galanin-IR) nerve fibres were found in close neighbourhood of AQP1-IR neurons. It is concluded that AQP1 is present in certain neuronal subsets of the ovine trigeminal ganglion; however, the exact role of this water channel has to be elucidated.     

Microsphere immunoassay for the detection of cytokines in domestic cat (Felis catus) plasma: elevated IL-12/23 in acute feline immunodeficiency virus infections

We recently described the development and validation of a highly sensitive and specific microsphere immunoassay capable of simultaneously quantifying three domestic cat cytokines in tissue culture supernatant. Here we describe the modification of this assay to measure interferon gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-12/IL-23 p40 (IL-12/23) in domestic cat plasma, report values obtained from plasma collected after feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) exposure, and compare plasma concentrations to blood cell mRNA expression. The validated quantitation limits of this assay are 31–1000 pg/ml for IFNγ, 63–2000 pg/ml for IL-10, and 20–625 pg/ml for IL-12/23. Plasma cytokine levels from domestic cats infected with pathogenic and/or apathogenic FIV were determined at 3–4 and 7–8 weeks post-infection. IL-12/23 was elevated (p < 0.05) during acute infection with both FIV strains in two similar studies, conducted five years apart in different feline cohorts (n = 44 total animals). IL-12/23 concentrations ranged from 377 to 1904 pg/ml in naïve cats and 552 to 3460 pg/ml in infected cats. In contrast, the majority of plasma samples had IFNγ and IL-10 concentrations below the lowest standard tested. The inability to consistently detect levels of IFNγ and IL-10 in plasma, despite the fact that mRNA changes were detected, suggests that these cytokines may be secreted and/or cleared in a more highly regulated manner than IL-12/23, or perhaps exert local effects under tighter peripheral constraints and/or at a lower effective concentration.     

Relationship between plasma progesterone and pregnancy-associated glycoprotein concentrations during early pregnancy in dairy cows

The relationship between the concentration of plasma progesterone (P4) during embryo attachment or at recognition of pregnancy, and that of pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) was assessed in dairy cows. The outcome of artificial insemination (AI) was classified as positive (AI+), negative (AI?), or late embryonic mortality (EM) by measuring circulating PAG concentrations and by ultrasonography. Based on P4 concentrations at either day 21 or day 15, AI+ and EM cows were classified into ‘low’ (P4 concentrations < mean) and ‘high’ (P4 concentrations > mean) P4 groups. In both experiments, the threshold of P4 concentration between the ‘low’ and ‘high’ groups was approximately 6 ng/mL. PAG concentrations were lower in the ‘low’ group only when P4 concentrations were below the threshold. The study findings suggest that a possible P4 threshold exists below which PAG secretion may be impaired.     

Differential gene expression of proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines in lungs of ascites-resistant and -susceptible broiler chickens following intravenous cellulose microparticle injection

Intravenous injection of microparticles (MPs) is a tool to reveal susceptibility to pulmonary hypertension (PH) syndrome (PHS, ascites) in broilers. After injection MPs get lodged in pulmonary arterioles and cause localized inflammation. To examine the expression of chemokines/cytokines during the MP-induced pulmonary inflammatory response, lungs were collected from 4-week-old broilers (6/line/time point) from the PHS-resistant (RES) and -susceptible (SUS) broilers before (0 h) and after (2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h) MP injection and analyzed using quantitative RT-PCR. In both lines, expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, and K60 increased from 0 to 6 h, reached peak levels at 6 and 12 h, and decreased thereafter, whereas IL-4 and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) expression remained elevated past 12 h. Lungs from the RES line broilers had higher expression (P < 0.05) of IL-1β and IL-6 at 2, 6, and 12 h; higher IL-8 at 6 and 12 h; higher K60 at 6, 12, and 24 h; higher IL-4 at 12, 24, and 48 h and higher IFN-γ expression at 6 and 48 h post-MP injection than SUS line broilers. Higher expression of chemokines/cytokines in RES compared to SUS line lungs may explain the ability of RES line broilers to effectively counteract the MP-induced PH and resolve the vascular occlusion.     

Antibody and T cell responses induced in chickens immunized with avian influenza virus N1 and NP DNA vaccine with chicken IL-15 and IL-18

We had examined the immunogenicity of a series of plasmid DNAs which include neuraminidase (NA) and nucleoprotein (NP) genes from avian influenza virus (AIV). The interleukin-15 (IL-15) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) as genetic adjuvants were used for immunization in combination with the N1 and NP AIV genes. In the first trial, 8 groups of chickens were established with 10 specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens per group while, in the second trial 7 SPF chickens per group were used. The overall N1 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) titer in chickens immunized with the pDis/N1 + pDis/IL-15 was higher compared to the chickens immunized with the pDis/N1 and this suggesting that chicken IL-15 could play a role in enhancing the humoral immune response. Besides that, the chickens that were immunized at 14-day-old (Trial 2) showed a higher N1 antibody titer compared to the chickens that were immunized at 1-day-old (Trial 1). Despite the delayed in NP antibody responses, the chickens co-administrated with IL-15 were able to induce earlier and higher antibody response compared to the pDis/NP and pDis/NP + pDis/IL-18 inoculated groups. The pDis/N1 + pDis/IL-15 inoculated chickens also induced higher CD8+ T cells increase than the pDis/N1 group in both trials (P < 0.05). The flow cytometry results from both trials demonstrated that the pDis/N1 + pDis/IL-18 groups were able to induce CD4+ T cells higher than the pDis/N1 group (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, pDis/N1 + pDis/IL-18 group was able to induce CD8+ T cells higher than the pDis/N1 group (P < 0.05) in Trial 2 only. In the present study, pDis/NP was not significant (P > 0.05) in inducing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells when co-administered with the pDis/IL-18 in both trials in comparison to the pDis/NP. Our data suggest that the pDis/N1 + pDis/IL-15 combination has the potential to be used as a DNA vaccine against AIV in chickens.     

Diabetes mellitus does not affect the neuromuscular blocking action of atracurium in dogs

Objective

To compare the duration of action of atracurium in diabetic and nondiabetic dogs.

Systemic and local immune response in pigs intradermally and intramuscularly injected with inactivated Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae vaccines

The systemic and respiratory local immune response induced by the intradermal administration of a commercial inactivated Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae whole-cell vaccine (Porcilis^® MHYO ID ONCE – MSD AH) in comparison with two commercial vaccines administered via the intramuscular route and a negative control (adjuvant only) was investigated. Forty conventional M. hyopneumoniae-free pigs were randomly assigned to four groups (ten animals each): Group A = intradermal administration of the test vaccine by using the needle-less IDAL^® vaccinator at a dose of 0.2 ml; Group B = intramuscular administration of a commercially available vaccine (vaccine B); Group C = intramuscular administration of the adjuvant only (2 ml of X-solve adjuvant); Group D = intramuscular administration of a commercially available vaccine (vaccine D). Pigs were vaccinated at 28 days of age. Blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid samples were collected at vaccination (blood only), 4 and 8 weeks post-vaccination. Serum and BAL fluid were tested for the presence of antibodies by ELISA test. Peripheral blood monomorphonuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated to quantify the number of IFN-γ secreting cells by ELISpot. Moreover, cytokine gene expression from the BAL fluid was performed. Total antibodies against M. hyopneumoniae and specific IgG were detected in serum of intradermally and intramuscularly (vaccine B only) vaccinated pigs at 4 and 8 weeks post-vaccination. M. hyopneumoniae specific IgA were detected in BAL fluid from vaccinated animals (Groups A and B) but not from controls and animals vaccinated with the bacterin D (p < 0.05). Significantly higher gene expression of IL-10 was observed in the BAL fluid at week 8 post-vaccination in the intradermally vaccinated pigs (p < 0.05). The results support that the intradermal administration of an adjuvanted bacterin induces both systemic and mucosal immune responses. Moreover, the intramuscularly administered commercial vaccines each had a different ability to stimulate the immune response both systemically and locally.     

Co‐expression of PACAP with VIP,SP and CGRP in the Porcine Nodose Ganglion Sensory Neurons

Our previous study revealed the expression of substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) in sensory distal ganglion of the vagus (nodose ganglion) neurons in the pig. As these neuropeptides may be involved in nociception, the goal of these investigations was to determine possible expression of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), SP and CGRP in the pituitary adenylate cyclase‐activating polypeptide‐immunoreactive (PACAP‐IR) porcine nodose perikarya. Co‐expression of these substances was examined using a double‐labelling immunofluorescence technique. To reveal the ganglionic cell bodies, the pan‐neuronal marker protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) was used. Quantitative analysis of the neurons revealed that 67.25% of the PGP 9.5+ somata in the right‐side ganglion and 66.5% in the left side, respectively, co‐expressed PACAP‐IR. Moreover, 60.6% of the PACAP‐IR cells in the right‐side ganglion and 62.1% in the left, respectively, co‐expressed VIP. SP‐IR was observed in 52.2 and 39.9% of the right and left ganglia, respectively. CGRP was found in 27.7 and 34.1% of the right and left distal ganglion of the vagus, respectively. High level of co‐expression of PACAP with VIP, SP and CGRP in the distal ganglia of the vagus sensory perikarya directly implicates studied peptides in their functional interaction during nociceptive vagal transduction.     

Comparison between the effects of postanesthetic xylazine and dexmedetomidine on characteristics of recovery from sevoflurane anesthesia in horses

Objective

To compare postanesthetic xylazine and dexmedetomidine on recovery characteristics from sevoflurane anesthesia in horses.

The stability of the reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) and biological antioxidant potential (BAP) tests on stored horse blood

Increasing interest in the role of oxidative stress (OS) in equine medicine has highlighted the need to develop reliable methods to quantify it. In this study we describe the effect of refrigeration (at 4 °C) on the stability of the reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) and biological antioxidant potential (BAP) tests carried out on 15 healthy horses. Blood samples, collected from the jugular vein, were immediately placed on ice and analysed using both the d-ROMs and BAP tests. Samples were also refrigerated at 4 °C and tested after 3, 7 and 24 h. The average results were similar for up to 24 h and minimal variations were found for each horse. The findings suggest that refrigeration is suitable for preserving equine blood samples for these assays and this approach will provide veterinarians with a technically simple, reliable test to measure OS under field conditions.