Didactic tools for supporting participatory water management in collective irrigation schemes

In many irrigation schemes, Water Users Associations (WUAs) acquired the responsibility for water management after withdrawal of the state. Based on the success of some indigenous irrigation schemes, it was assumed that farmers could easily become managers. As decision-making was the exclusive terrain of the governmental agencies that ran the schemes, farmers never gained the necessary experience with water management. Therefore, training of farmers and WUAs on the principles and processes of water management is essential. This paper demonstrates a practical example of training material on water management that incorporates research results on the process of Irrigation Management Transfer and resulting farmers’ water management for the case of the Office du Niger irrigation scheme. The results of the paper explain how input from research was used in the four steps of the construction of training material. These steps are (1) setting the training agenda, (2) selecting and adapting information to be featured, (3) targeting the audience and (4) designing the actual training material. A first validation of the approach and examples of the actual training material were obtained in a workshop uniting all stakeholders.     

Effects of alternative water distribution rules on irrigation system performance: a simulation analysis

Based on a simulation model reflecting physical and economic conditions typically found in rice irrigation systems in Asia, the irrigation performance implications of alternative water distribution rules for dry season irrigation are evaluated under varying degrees of water shortage. The rules examined reflect differing water distribution strategies designed either to maximize conveyance efficiency, economic efficiency, or equity; or to achieve a balance between efficiency and equity objectives. Irrigation performance is evaluated using several efficiency measures reflecting the physical, agronomic and economic productivity of water, and one measure of equity. Economic efficiency and equity among farmers within the portion of the irrigation system that is on in any given season are shown to be complementary, and not competing objectives. Economic efficiency and equity among all farmers within the command area of the irrigation system are largely complementary strategies at the lower levels of water shortage, but with increasing shortage, significant tradeoffs develop between these objectives. An operational rule for water distribution under a goal of maximizing economic efficiency is developed, and the data requirements for its implementation are shown to be modest. Under the model's assumed conditions of dry season rice production dependent solely on surface irrigation for water, the distribution strategy designed to maximize conveyance efficiency results in only modestly lower levels of economic efficiency and equity than could be achieved by the strategy designed to maximize economic efficiency.     

The use of measured water flows in furrow irrigation management — a case study in Swaziland

The use of measured water in controlling flows for the irrigation of sugarcane was found to be vital for the rehabilitation and management of surface irrigation on a 5000 ha sugarcane project. Methods of water delivery, measurement and control at Inyoni Yami Swaziland Irrigation Scheme (IYSIS) are described. Improvements to the irrigation, using existing methods of water measurement, were carried out over a period of four years. The lessons gained in this programme of improvements confirmed the benefits of using modulus gates which allow a constant, measured, discharge of water.     

Irrigation management institutions in transition: a look back, a look forward

The paper explores current dissatisfaction withpast irrigation improvement approaches and examines reasonssuch dissatisfaction is so widespread. It reviews past andcurrent efforts to improve irrigation management in developingcountries and deduces themes with implications for the future. Finally it builds on these themes to speculate on directions inwhich both public irrigation agencies and local levelmanagement institutions will evolve in the future.     

The Irrigation Management Game: A role playing exercise for training in irrigation management

The development of a role playing exercise for training of irrigation professionals in the management of small holder irrigation schemes is described. The exercise places participants in the position of either agency staff or farmers. As farmers participants are dependent on irrigation water supplies from the agency managed run-of-the-river irrigation system. As agency staff participants are responsible for water allocation between competing demands on the main system. The exercise develops interaction between the participants as they trade in water and negotiate for irrigation supplies.The exercise develops an understanding of the issues involved in managing an irrigation system, though not only on technical matters such as water allocation policy, yield response to water and performance assessment. The exercise also creates an awareness of the whole system, in particular the importance of communication between agency staff and farmers, and between farmers themselves.The Irrigation Management Game is the copyright of the author, Professor Ian Carruthers of Wye College, University of London and consulting engineers Mott MacDonald, Cambridge, UK.     

Aflaj irrigation and on-farm water management in northern Oman

This paper reports on results from a case study on water management within a traditional, falaj irrigation system in northern Oman. In the planning and design of regional irrigation development programs, generalized assumptions are frequently made as to the efficiency of traditional surface irrigation systems. Although qualitative accounts abound, very little quantitative research has been conducted on on-farm water management within falaj systems. Daily irrigation applications and crop water use was monitored during an 11-month period among 6 farm holdings at Falaj Hageer in Wilayat Al-Awabi. Contrary to the frequent assumptions that all surface irrigation systems incur unnecessarily high water losses, on-farm ratios of crop water demand to irrigation supply were found to be relatively high. Based on actual crop water use, irrigation demand/supply ratios among monitored farms varied from 0.60 to 0.98, with a mean of 0.79. Examination of the soil moisture budget indicates that during most irrigations of wheat (cultivated in the low evapotranspiration months of October–March) sufficient water is applied for the shallow root zone to attain field capacity. With the exception of temporary periods of high falaj delivery flows or periods of rainfall, field capacity is usually not attained during irrigations within the more extensive root zones of date palm farms. The data presented in this paper should provide a better understanding of water use performance by farmers within traditional falaj systems. Moreover, these data should also serve to facilitate more effective development planning for irrigation water conservation programs in the region.     

Performance assessment of irrigation water management of heterogeneous irrigation schemes: 2. A case study

The non-uniformity of soils, weather, fields, cropping pattern and canal systems in most surface irrigation schemes makes irrigation water management complex, but optimum performance is important particularly in irrigation schemes with limited water supply. This paper focuses on the performance of irrigation water management during the area and water allocation with a case study of an irrigation scheme in the semi-arid region of India. Often the irrigation managers or authorities of these heterogeneous irrigation schemes also need to deal with different allocation rules. The allocation plans and the corresponding water delivery schedules during the allocation process were estimated with the help of a simulation–optimisation model for different allocation rules based on cropping distributions (free and fixed), water distributions (free and fixed-area proportionate), irrigation depth (full, fixed depth and variable depth irrigation) and irrigation interval (from 14 to 35 days). The performance measures of productivity (in terms of net benefits and area irrigated), equity (in water distribution), adequacy and excess were assessed for these different allocation plans and schedules. These were further compared with the performance measures of the existing rule (fixed depth irrigation at a fixed interval). The analysis revealed that these performance measures are in some cases complimentary and in other cases conflicting with each other. Therefore, it would be appropriate for the irrigation managers to understand fully the nature of the variation in performance measures for different allocation rules prior to deciding the allocation plans for the irrigation scheme.     

Performance assessment of irrigation water management of heterogeneous irrigation schemes: 1. A framework for evaluation

Studies of the performance assessment of irrigation schemes have gained momentum since the late 1980s due to the common perspective that the resources (land and water) in irrigation schemes are not being managed appropriately. In this paper irrigation water management is considered as one of the activities of the irrigation scheme. Three phases of irrigation water management namely planning, operation and evaluation are identified. A framework for the performance assessment of irrigation water management in heterogeneous irrigation schemes is proposed in this paper, based on earlier studies made in this direction. The paper presents two types of allocative measures (productivity and equity) and five types of scheduling measures (adequacy, reliability, flexibility, sustainability and efficiency), together with the methodologies for estimating these for the scheme as a whole during different phases of irrigation water management.     

Modernization of irrigation systems: A case of research,oriented to improve management

In recent years, the traditional concept of an irrigation project has been changing. From just a physical structure for the storage, conveyance and distribution of water, it is now being regarded as a more complex system, including farmers' participation. This implies an improved management in all phases, from reservoir operation to farm management, and therefore the change from simple operation and maintenance to operation, maintenance and management.To face this new challenge, existing projects must be modernized. The Sorraia Irrigation Project is one of those projects. In this paper major problems are identified and it is showed how research (namely through modelling) can be oriented towards an improved management, regarding the conveyance and distribution systems as well as the on-farm systems.Finally it becomes evident that beyond the technical problems to be solved, the involvement and participation of farmers must be improved at all levels of management. Hence, there is also a need for implementing programs on education, training and extension.     

An analysis of the water management performance of small holder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe

This paper analyses the water management performance of small holder irrigation systems in Zimbabwe. The government and farmer managed systems are compared in terms of their ability to match desired with actual water supply. Desired supply is defined as crop water requirements adjusted downwards by rainfall where relevant. The Theil measure of accuracy of forecasts is used to calculate the error committed by each system in trying to match water supply and demand. The analysis shows that, everything else being equal, the farmer managed system performs better than the government system in matching supply and demand. This means that the farmer managed systems should be encouraged for future small holder irrigation development in Zimbabwe.     

The financial viability of irrigation management companies: A case study of Cu Chi irrigation system,Vietnam

A crucial, yet little understood, element in the economic studies of irrigation is the role played by companies who manage the supply of water. Many of these companies are publicly managed as they have the potential to act as monopolists. Possibly as a consequence of their ownership structure, analysts have questioned the economic viability and management of these firms. The case is made that many of these companies do not run profitably, that they rely on government subsidies to survive, that they do not spend enough on maintenance and that they run down their capital base. The purpose in this paper is to specify the measures that allow analysts to examine the financial viability of a publicly owned irrigation management companies and to apply these to a scheme in Vietnam. Of concern and contention in any irrigation scheme is the price that a company should charge for water in order to recover costs in the short-run. It was found that the company under investigation could not operate without subsidies and did run down their assets. It was found that a great disparity exists between what the consumers were charged for water and what the company received for supplying it. To ensure the sustainability of the Irrigation Management Companies in long term, they may have to increase the water fee by 3.75 times the current rate set by the provincial government (US$ 20 per ha).     

Performance of agency-managed and farmer-managed irrigation systems: A comparative case study at Chitwan, Nepal

Management reforms are considered one of the best alternatives in increasing efficiency of the irrigation systems. Transfer of day-to-day operation and maintenance to farmers is not a new concept. However due to lags, even now it is a hot issue in developing countries and Nepal is not an exception. In this context of growing argument about the transfer of management of public irrigation systems to the Water Users' Group, this paper examines the comparative performance of farmer-managed and agency-managed irrigation systems. Khageri Irrigation System in the Chitwan district of Nepal was taken as the study site where complete management transfer has been done in 1996. The situations before and after complete transfer were compared. Intensive case studies of the selected farmers showed that equity in distribution of water and leakage had significantly improved after management transfer. Logit analysis revealed that age and education level of the household head, distance from main canal, leakage of the canal and equity in distribution are significantly related to the satisfaction level of the beneficiary farmers from FMIS compared to AMIS. However, landholding size of the respondent farmer has no significant effect. Similarly results from t-test revealed that rice productivity and overall profits from agriculture has also increased significantly due to irrigation management transfer.     

The impact of design approximations on the operational performance of an irrigation scheme

A method is presented to analyse the impact of the selection of irrigation gates on operational performance of the Sungai Muda Irrigation Scheme in Malayisa. The method examines the discharge capacity of the water control gates at all levels in order to compare the specific water supply (the ratio of supply to command area) with the specific water demand which is the required hydromodule. The term hydromodule is the reciprocal of water duty and thus has units of litres/second/hectare. The greater the deviation between the two, the greater the potential loss of control during the operation of the scheme. The method is relatively simple but is more complex in this particular example as two hydromodules are used for the irrigation of basin rice; one for the presaturation period and one for the normal supply period. The most common cause of loss of water control is found to be provision of oversized turnout gates at the head of secondary and tertiary canals. Such design approximations enable more water to be used in those command areas thus leading to waste and to shortage of water in other areas. It is suggested that during design and rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, the operational implications of design approximations should be examined more carefully.     

基于水量平衡下的灌区用水计划编制方法综述

为了精准指导农田灌溉,合理优化渠系输配水,提高水资源的利用率、灌区的管理水平和总效益,对灌区用水计划的编制方法展开了理论研究.将用水计划的编制过程概括为实时灌溉预报和渠系配水两部分,分别进行归纳整理和分析.在对国内灌区用水计划的编制方式进行了解的基础上,着重介绍了利用土壤水分平衡方程进行实时灌溉预报的方法,总结各参数预测值和计算修正值的获取方法,分析对比各方法的适用范围,提炼普遍灌区实时灌溉预报中适用的方法.为了优化田间渠系配水次序和配水量,以保证作物得到及时有效灌溉,归纳总结了国内灌区常用的渠系配水模型,论述了常见的目标函数及相关约束的选取原则,并指出其局限性和可能的发展趋势.研究结果可为各灌区进行实时灌溉预报和建立优化配水模型提供借鉴与参考.     

Comparing water management in rice-wheat production systems in Haryana, India and Punjab, Pakistan

The intensive irrigated rice-wheat systems in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia are built on a long tradition of canal irrigation and the more recent advent of tubewells. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine water management and water productivity in the rice-wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. Attributes of the irrigation sources help explain the widespread interest in groundwater use and the relative demise of canal water use. In each area groundwater now is the main irrigation source, used either solely or in conjunction with surface water. The ownership of tubewells is near universal among the surveyed farms, whereas conjunctive water use is more widespread during the monsoon season, among better endowed farmers and in the Pakistan Punjab. In Pakistan Punjab farmers primarily rely on diesel powered tubewells whereas Haryana farmers mainly use relatively cheaper electric power. Water productivity indicators for rice are markedly lower than those for wheat—largely reflecting significantly higher water inputs in paddy cultivation—but also vary between the study areas and by the prevailing water use, reflecting the limited incentives for farmers to use water wisely. A combination of technological, land use and market based approaches is likely to be most effective in achieving sustainable water management in these intensive cereal systems.     

An assessment of project management software as a decision support system for irrigation management in Morocco

The characteristics and potential of project management software as a tool for improved planning and management of on-going irrigation operations are assessed. A commercially available package was tested through use for the simulated planning of the close season maintenance campaign of major pump stations at a large scale irrigation scheme in Morocco. The software was found to be well suited to this planning activity and successfully helped resolve conflicts in terms of time and resources available. Its potential as a tool for sensitivity analysis and for monitoring and control was clearly demonstrated. The exercise had an immediate effect on management decision making and managers concerned have adopted the software for further trials. The approach is recommended as a means to enhance planning, communication and teamwork for suitable irrigation management operations, but will be most effective with the development of supporting databases to enhance the quality of planning data used.     

基于蒸发皿水面蒸发量制定冬小麦喷灌计划

该研究拟利用直径为20cm的标准蒸发皿,制定简单易行的喷灌冬小麦灌溉计划。试验于2005－2006年和2006－2007年冬小麦生长季节,在中国科学院通州农田水循环和节水灌溉试验基地进行。以布置在冠层上20 cm直径蒸发皿水面蒸发量（E）为基础,研究了不同水面蒸发量倍数（分别为0.25、0.50、0.75、1.00和1.25倍,以及不灌水对照处理）灌溉水量条件下,喷灌水量对土壤水分、冬小麦生长、产量、耗水量和水分利用效率的影响,分析了利用水面蒸发量制定喷灌灌溉计划的可行性。试验结果显示,喷灌条件下土壤水分主要在0～60 cm土层内变化。当灌溉水量小于0.25E时,冬小麦叶面积指数和生物量较小,而大于1.00E也会抑制冬小麦生长。喷灌条件下冬小麦单个生育期内的耗水量在 312～508 mm内变化,耗水量随着灌水量的增加而增加。喷灌0.50E～0.75E时,冬小麦产量和水分利用效率最高或者接近于最高;灌水量较小（≤0.25E）和较大（≥1.00E）时均会降低产量。建议在北京地区冬小麦返青后,喷灌水量可采用0.50～0.75倍的20 cm蒸发皿水面蒸发量,灌水间隔可采用5～7 d。     

Water distribution on a large distributary,Tungabhadra, India

Results are presented of field research on water distribution in the command area, covering 18,200 ha, of a secondary irrigation canal in the Tungabhadra Left Bank Scheme, Karnataka State, India.The official objective of the Scheme and the resulting implications for the water distribution are discussed first. An explanation of the planning and operation of the water distribution follows.The results are based on analyses of the water flows taken from the D36 secondary canal and distributed along the canal to the pipe outlets (inlet structures to the tertiary units), and of the canal section rotation practised along the canal. The analyses concentrate on three dimensions of the water supply:The design flows, according to the official Scheme objectives and criteria;The targets, as set by the system operators before every season;The actual distribution procedures and flows, as observed during the operation.The analyses, supported by flow measurement data, illustrate that the water distribution is not based on consistent and clear criteria and procedures, but that it is the outcome of varying compromises, decided upon pragmatically by the field staff, to bridge the gap between the farmers' demands and the upstream constraints to water availability. This paper explains the widespread phenomenon of head reaches taking too much water, leaving little or nothing for the tail end of the canal.     

Agricultural and environmental changes after irrigation management transfer in the Develi Basin,Turkey

Develi Basin is a semi-arid basin in central Turkey where water sustains both irrigated agriculture and an internationally important wetland, the Sultan Marshes. Agricultural and environmental changes in the Develi Basin have occurred since irrigation management was transferred in 1994 from a state authority (DSI) to irrigation associations (Kovalı and Ağcaaşar IAs). In this paper we evaluate the practices of the IAs using extensive data from interviews with farmers and IA officials, as well as data from reports prepared by DSI and the IAs, using comparisons with case studies reported in the scientific literature. Irrigated areas and surface water use in the Develi Basin showed significant fluctuations from 1995 to 2003. The area allocated to high water-consuming plants increased. Maintenance activities became dependent on fee collection rates. Quality of the irrigation water did not changed significantly. Ground-water levels, flow rates from springs, and water levels in the Sultan Marshes all dropped. Overall analyses indicate that the water requirements of the Sultan Marshes have not been met, while water use for irrigation has been effective but not efficient. To reconcile agricultural and wetland water requirements, a basin-wide approach in water planning is recommended. Amounts of water to be allocated to the IAs and wetlands need to be clearly defined. DSI has to monitor canal maintenance by the IAs more closely, and IAs need to be given more responsibilities for future rehabilitation of the canals. Realistic water pricing, increased reliability of irrigation scheduling, higher on-farm irrigation efficiency, and in the long-term, modernization of the irrigation system need to be considered.     

Tomato yield, biomass accumulation, root distribution and irrigation water use efficiency on a sandy soil, as affected by nitrogen rate and irrigation scheduling

Florida is the largest producer of fresh-market tomatoes in the United States. Production areas are typically intensively managed with high inputs of fertilizer and irrigation. The objectives of this 3-year field study were to evaluate the interaction between N-fertilizer rates and irrigation scheduling on yield, irrigation water use efficiency (iWUE) and root distribution of tomato cultivated in a plastic mulched/drip irrigated production systems. Experimental treatments included three irrigation scheduling regimes and three N-rates (176, 220 and 230 kg ha⁻¹). Irrigation treatments included were: (1) SUR (surface drip irrigation) both irrigation and fertigation line placed right underneath the plastic mulch; (2) SDI (subsurface drip irrigation) where the irrigation line was placed 0.15 m below the fertigation line which was located on top of the bed; and (3) TIME (conventional control) with irrigation and fertigation lines placed as in SUR and irrigation being applied once a day. Except for the “TIME” treatment all irrigation treatments were controlled by soil moisture sensor (SMS)-based irrigation set at 10% volumetric water content which was allotted five irrigation windows daily and bypassed events if the soil water content exceeded the established threshold. Average marketable fruit yields were 28, 56 and 79 Mg ha⁻¹ for years 1-3, respectively. The SUR treatment required 15-51% less irrigation water when compared to TIME treatments, while the reductions in irrigation water use for SDI were 7-29%. Tomato yield was 11-80% higher for the SUR and SDI treatments than TIME where as N-rate did not affect yield. Root concentration was greatest in the vicinity of the irrigation and fertigation drip lines for all irrigation treatments. At the beginning of reproductive phase about 70-75% of the total root length density (RLD) was concentrated in the 0-15 cm soil layer while 15-20% of the roots were found in the 15-30 cm layer. Corresponding RLD distribution values during the reproductive phase were 68% and 22%, respectively. Root distribution in the soil profile thus appears to be mainly driven by development stage, soil moisture and nutrient availability. It is concluded that use of SDI and SMS-based systems consistently increased tomato yields while greatly improving irrigation water use efficiency and thereby reduced both irrigation water use and potential N leaching.