The effect of wilting and silage additives on the fermentation of autumn made grass silage ensiled in bunkers on commercial farms in South Wales 1983-85

Silage making practices in respect of 130 samples of autumn made grass silages ensiled in bunkers on commercial farms in South Wales during 1983-1985 were analysed to discern the effect of wilting and/or silage additives on fermentation. Silages were primarily made during late September and early October in fine weather from perennial ryegrass pasture which had not been grazed for 6 weeks. On average 13.9 ha of pasture was cut for silage. Analysis of 120 samples of grass showed it contained 176 g kg^?1 dry matter (DM) with (g kg^?1 DM) 215 protein, 240 modified acid detergent fibre (MADF), 78 water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) and 95 ash. Most farmers attempted to pre-wilt grass for 1 day prior to ensilage and one quarter of them made unwilted silage. Silage making was usually completed within 6 days of starting to cut and was generally made with a precision-chop machine. Silage additives applied were (kg t^?1) formic acid (4·7), formic acid 4-formalin (5·5), sulphuric acid-+ formalin (5·0) sugars (14) and inoculants (0·65). Formic acid significantly reduced pH, and formic acid with or without formalin significantly reduced ammonia nitrogen (N) content of silages compared with other treatments. Protein contents of acid/formalin treated silages were significantly higher and MADF of acid with or without formalin treated silages were significantly lower than other treatments. Pre-wilting grass prior to ensilage did not significantly increase subsequent silage DM content and significantly increased the pH of non-additive treated silages. Unwilted silages treated with formic acid with or without formalin had a significantly lower ammonia-N content and higher residual WSC than other treatments. It is suggested that only formic acid application either alone or in conjunction with formalin to unwilted silage was successful in producing well preserved silages and that a grass WSC content of 17 g kg^?1 would be necessary to achieve this.     

The effect of an acid salt-type additive on the fermentation of grass silages made in bunker silos on commercial dairy farms in Wales

The fermentation characteristics and chemical composition of 57 first-cut and 30 second-cut samples of grass silages, made in bunker silos on commercial dairy farms in Wales in 1990, and treated with a nominal 61 t⁻¹ of an acid salt-type additive at ensilage, is described. Typical chemical composition of grass cut for ensilage was 156 g kg⁻¹ dry matter (DM) and 28 g kg⁻¹ water soluble carbohydrate (WSC), with 181 g (kg DM) ⁻¹ crude protein (CP) and 232 g (kg DM) ⁻¹ modified acid detergent fibre (MADF). The effect of additive use was to produce silages with DM 230 g kg⁻¹ pH 3·93, ammonia N 70 g kg⁻¹ total N, with residual WSC 35 g (kg DM) ⁻¹, lactic acid 83 g (kg DM) ⁻¹, total acids 118 g (kg DM) ⁻¹ and butyric acid 0·7 g (kg DM) ⁻¹. No significant differences were found between first- and second-cut silages. Silage fermentation was restricted (i.e. lactic acid less than 60 g kg DM⁻¹) in only 20% of the samples.
It is suggested that on commercial farms the application rate achieved may be insufficient to produce a restricted fermentation.     

The effect of dry matter content and silage additives on the fermentation of grass silage on commercial farms

A total of 1713 samples of silage from commercial farm silos were analysed to investigate the effect of dry matter (DM) content and chemical additives on fermentation as measured by ammonia-N concentration and pH, Increasing DM content without additive use had a major beneficial influence upon fermentation. When silage DM contents were greater than 260 g kg^-1 83% of silages were well fermented, with average ammonia-N concentrations of 94 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.36. With diminishing DM concentration the proportion of well fermented silages declined. In the DM range 220-260 g kg^-1 67% of silages were well fermented with ammonia-N concentrations of 125 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.30, in the DM range 180-220 g kg^-1 48% were well fermented with ammonia-N at 151 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.38 and with DM below 180 g kg^-1 no silages were well fermented with ammonia-N concentration of 252 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.84. The benefit of chemical additives, albeit at poorly defined and often inadequate rates, was small in comparison to that of increased DM concentration. Below DM concentrations of 180 and 220 g kg^-1, the only benefit was that formic acid decreased ammonia-N to 151 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH to 4.32 compared with 163 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.43 for untreated silages. Within the DM range 220-260 g kg^-1 formic acid decreased ammonia-N level to 104 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH to 4.07, and there was a slight benefit from using sulphuric acid/formalin which decreased ammonia-N to 117 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH to 4.23 compared with 125 g (kg total N)^-1 and pH 4.27 for untreated silages. Above 260 g DM kg^-1 both formic acid and sulphuric acid/formalin provided a small but consistent decrease in ammonia-N and pH compared with untreated silages. Chemical additive use conferred no other benefit when compared with untreated silage. Calcium formate/sodium nitrite mixtures and acid mixture use provided no benefit in fermentation compared with untreated herbage.     

Effect of herbage water-soluble carbohydrate content and weather conditions at ensilage on the fermentation of grass silages made on commercial farms

A total of 1009 samples of silage made in bunker silos on commercial farms between 1972 and 1978 was analysed to investigate the effect of herbage water-soluble carbohydrate content (WSC) and weather conditions at ensilage on fermentation as measured by ammonia-N concentration and pH of first-cut grass silages.
Silage dry matter (DM) content had the major effect on fermentation. Factors influencing silage DM were rainfall and hours of sunshine during silage making, and DM content of the grass cut. WSC content of herbage ensiled also had a significant effect on subsequent fermentation. The major influences on herbage WSC were hours of sunshine and rainfall during the growing season.
The effect of chemical additives, albeit at poorly defined and often inadequate rates, was small in comparison to that of silage DM.
The minimum DM necessary to produce well-fermented silage without additive was approximately 260 g kg⁻¹. Use of formic acid significantly reduced this requirement to 240 g kg⁻¹ and to 252 g kg⁻¹ for sulphuric add + formalin. The results indicate that the minimum herbage WSC necessary to prevent a clostridial fermentation developing in silage with a DM content of 230 g kg⁻¹ is approximately 37 g kg⁻¹ without additive and 30 g kg⁻¹ with formic acid.
It is concluded that on commercial farms, weather conditions i.e. amount of rainfall and sunshine prior to and at ensilage, have a greater effect on subsequent silage fermentation than additive use.     

Enzymes as silage additives 2. The effect of grass dry matter content on silage quality and performance in sheep

Eight grass silages were made from two contrasting varieties of perennial ryegrass, four silages each from a late-cut early-maturing (high dry matter, HDM) variety and from an early-cut, late-maturing (low dry matter, LDM) variety. The grass was ensiled without additive (untreated), or with formic acid, or with one of two enzyme mixtures of hemicellulases and cellulases (enzyme 1 and enzyme 2) for a period of 130 d.
Formic acid-treated silage had lower levels of lactic acid at both levels of dry matter than the other silages. Enzyme treatment of grass prior to ensilage resulted in reduced levels of cellulose, acid-detergent fibre and neutral-detergent fibre in LDM silages and lower acid-detergent fibre and neutral-detergent fibre in the HDM silages compared with the corresponding untreated and formic acid-treated silages. Voluntary intakes (g DM d⁻¹) of untreated and enzyme-treated silages were significantly ( P <0·01) lower at both digestibilities compared with formic acid-treated silages (LDM: untreated, 982; formic, 1069; enzyme 1, 868; enzyme 2, 937; HDM: untreated, 931; formic, 1027; enzyme 1, 943; enzyme 2, 914). The organic matter, carbohydrate and nitrogen digestibility coefficients of LDM silages were significantly ( P <0·001) higher than those of HDM silages. There were no significant differences in any component digestibility related to silage additive.
Comparison of digestibility coefficients for constituents of the LDM silages fed to sheep or steers showed no differences between species.     

The effect of autumn fungicide application on spring dry matter accumulation in perennial ryegrass cv. S24

Fungicide applied to plots of perennial ryegrass cv. S24 in the autumn of 1981 significantly increased tiller number and total dry matter accumulation in February and March of 1982. However, fungicide application in the autumn of 1982 failed to increase tiller number or dry matter accumulation in the spring of 1983. It is suggested that fungicide application in autumn 1981 prevented the death of tillers caused by fungal attack after snow covered the plots in December 1981.     

The effect of glucose oxidase on the preservation of grass silage

Five experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of glucose oxidase (GO) on the preservation of grass silage in the absence of micro-organisms. In the first experiment, GO was tested in a 3% glucose solution. At the level of 1190 U GO l^-1 the pH value decreased to 3·94 in 1 h and to 3·02 in 24 h. At the level of 11·9 U l^-1 the pH decreased to 3·45 in 24 h.
The second experiment was performed by packing chopped grass into glass jars, sterilizing in an autoclave and adding GO. One day later the pH value had decreased to 4·65; 1·60% gluconic acid was found in the dry matter.
In the other three experiments grass was sealed in polythene bags and sterilized by gamma-irradiation. GO was found to cause a faster decrease in pH. Removing air from the silage by compaction decreased the GO activity. The addition of cellulase delayed the GO functioning for one day. Lactobacillus inoculant had no effect. Evidence was obtained that GO may affect the profile or activity of the original microflora of grass silage.     

The weight of potatoes in water: Further studies on the relation between the dry matter and starch content

Summary The weight in water (m _u ) of 100 g air-free potatoes multiplied by the dry matter factor (K) equals the percentage dry matter (m _t ) in the tubers. The weight in water is unaffected by the water in the potatoes but is reduced by air in the intercellular spaces and must be corrected for this by a constantk. From the specific gravity of the dry matter the factorK is estimated as 2.50. From the weight in water and the percentage of dry matter estimated by oven-drying of 5.413 samples between 1937 and 1964.K is also estimated as 2.50. The amount of air in potatoes varies. In 1.911 samples examined between 1937 and 1948 air reducedM _u on average by 0.8g, therefore,m _t (m _u +0.8)·2.5 orm _t ·m _u 2.5–2.00., In 2,732 samples examined between 1952 and 1964 the reduction was 0.6 g therefore,m _t —(m _u —0.6) 2.5 orm _t ·m _u ·2.5+1.5. The percentage dry matter can be calculated more exactly from the weight in water of potatoes from which the air has been evacuated by immersing the tubers in water in a closed container and subjecting to vacuum (50–20 mm Hg) for about 30 minutes.

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Zusammenfassung Die Beziehung zwischen Unterwassergewicht (m _w ) und Trockensubstanzgehalt (m _t ) von 100 g Kartoffeln wurde untersucht. In den Jahren 1937 bis 1964 wurde bei 5413 Mustern zu 5 kg von verschiedenen Kartoffelsorten das folgende Verh?ltnis festgestellt:K−m _t /m _w −2,5 auf der Basis von zunehmendemm _w bei zunehmendemm _t (Tabelle 1). Das spezifische Gewicht (d) der Trockensubstanz wurde bestimmt auf Grund der Wasserverdr?ngung, und das Verh?ltnisd/(d−1) wird Trocken-substanzfaktor K genannt. Im Jahre 1952 wurde das mittlere spezifische Gewicht von 26 Mustern mit 1,6689 errechnet. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, dassK−m _t /m _w −1,6689/(1,6689-1)−2,5 ist. Dieser Wert für K stimmt mit der für die 5413 Munster erhaltenen Zahl überein. Wenn diese Bestimmung ohne Fehler ist, erhalten wir:m _t −m _w K. In der Regel jedoch wird die Bestimmung vonm _w einem systematischen Fehler unterliegen, allgemein ungef?hr gleichwertig dem Volumen von luftgefüllten Interzellularr?umen. Diese vergr?ssern das Volumen der Kartoffeln und dadurch auch deren Wasserverdr?ngung, jedoch ohne Erh?hung des Kartoffelgewichtes, so dassm _w reduziert wird. Der Umfang, durch den das Unterwassergewichtm _w reduziert wird, variiert stark von Muster zu Muster und macht so die Bestimmung vonm _w unsicher. Wenn man die Luft durch Vakuumbehandlung aus den Kartoffeln entfernt und dann die Interzellularr?ume sich mit Wasser füllen l?sst, wird der Wert vanm _w erh?ht undm _w K wird fast gleich gross wiem _t . Wird die Vakuumbehandlung unterlassen, so muss eine Konstantek zum _t hinzugez?hlt werden. Bei 1911 Mustern, die zwischen 1937 und 1948 untersucht wurden, hat man festgestellt, dass die Luftm _w im Mittel um 0,8 g herabsetzte, daher warm _t (m _w −0,8)−2,5 oderm _t m _w 2,5+2,00. Bei 2732 zwischen 1952 und 1964 geprüften Mustern betrug die Reduktion 0,6 g, alsom _t −(m _w +0,6)−2,5 oderm _t −m _w 2,5+1,50. Selbst wenn der Mittelwert für eine grosse Zahl von Mustern bestimmt wird, variiert der Wert vonk entsprechend der Sorte und den Wachstumbedingungen. Aus diesem Grunde sollte der Wertk mit gebührender Rücksicht auf die lokalen Bedingungen fixiert werden. Im Gegensatz zuk scheint es, als obK 2,50 mit einem hohen Grad an Genauigkeit, entsprechendd/(d−1)−K bestimmt worden sei. Durch Bestimmung vond bei 27 Kartoffeltrockensubstanzmustern im Jahre 1965 wurde festgestellt, dassd=1,6694 undK−2,494 ist. Wenn alle Interzellularr?ume mit Wasser gefüllt sind, wird der Trockensubstanzgehalt durch Multiplikation des Unterwassergewichtes der Knollen (m _w ) mit 2,50 errechnet. Anderseits gibt es keine Methode zur Bestimmung des St?rkegehaltes (m _s ) ausm _w . Das Verh?ltnis zwischenm _w undm _s muss durch direkte St?rkebestimmungen gefunden werden. In Tylstrup wurden 266 St?rkebestimmungen mittels derEwers-Methode (1908) vorgenommen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass der St?rkegehalt in Prozent (m _s ) eventuell durchm _s −(m _w −2,39)–2,28 errechnet werden kann. Der 1948 bis 1951 ermittelte St?rkegehalt ist infolge Vorhandenseins von Pektin wahrscheinlich zu hoch. Wenn die Muster für die St?rkebestimmung durch Bleiacetat bei pH 8 gekl?rt werden, kann das Pektin beseitigt werden. Es scheint jedoch, dass zusammen mit und im Verh?ltnis zum Pektingehalt ausserdem etwas St?rke scheinbar verschwindet. Dies dürfte verhütet werden, wenn dem Muster HCl beigefügt wird, bis der pH ungef?hr 2 betr?gt, bevor das Bleiacetat dazugewird. Muster, die mit 0,116 N HCl fiitriert und ausgewaschen werden, ergeben nahezu gleiche Ergebnisse, ob Bleiacetat bei pH 2 oder 8 hinzugegeben wird. In Tylstrup wurden von 1962 bis 1964 an 165 Mustern St?rkebestimmungen vorgenommen. Diese Analysen zeigten, dassm _s =(m _w −2,42)−4,10 entspricht. Auf Grund der Unteruchungen in Tylstrup zwischen 1952 und 1964 wurde die Tabelle 4 vorbereitet, die erlaubt, den Trockensubstanz-und St?rkegehalt in Prozent vom Unterwassergewicht eines Kartoffelmusters zu ermitteln, und zwar in beiden F?llen, d.h. wenn die Luft aus den Knollen entfernt oder nicht entfernt worden ist.

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Résumé On a recherché la relation entre le poids sous eau (m _w ) et la teneur en matièrè sèche (m _t ) de 100 g de pommes de terre. Durant la période 1937–1964, sur 5413 échantillons de différentes variétés de pommes de terre, chaque échantillon pesant 5 kg, on a trouvé que cette relation était:K=m _t /m _w =2,5 sur la base d'une augmentationm _w avec une augmentation dem _t (Tableau 1). Le poids spécifique (d) de la matière sèche est déterminé sur la base du déplacement d'eau et la relationd/(d−1) désignele facteur K de la matière sèche. En 1952 le poids spécifique moyen de 26 échantillons a été trouvé être 1,6689. De deci on peut déduire queK=m _t /m _w −1,6689/(1,6689−1)=2,5. Cette valeur deK s'accorde avec le chiffre obtenu à partir de 5413 échantil-Si la détermination est faite sans erreur nous obtenons:m _t =m _w K. Cependant, la détermination dem _w sera, généralement, entachée d'une erreur systématique largement égale au volume des espaces intercellulaires remplis d'air. Ceux-ci accroissent le volume de pommes de terre et ainsi le déplacement d'eau, sans accro?tre le poids des pommes de terre etm _w sera diminué. L'importance de la réduction varie grandement d'un échantillon à l'autre, rendant de la sorte la détermination dem _w incertaine. En évacuant l'air des pommes de terre par traitement par le vide et permettant alors aux espaces intercellulaires de se remplir d'eau, la valeur dem _w augmente etm _w K devient plus étroitement égal àm _t . Si le traitement par le vide est omis, une constantek doit être ajoutée àm _t . Sur 1911 échantillons examinés entre 1937 et 1948 on a trouvé que l'air réduisaitm _w de 0,8 g en moyenne et, par conséquent,m _t −(m _w +0,8) =2,5 ou m _t −m _w =2,5+2,00. Pour 2732 échantillons examinés entre 1952 et 1964, la diminution était de 0,6 g, par conséquent,m _t −(m _w +0,6)=2,5 oum _t −m _w =2,5+1,5. Même si la valeur moyenne pour un grand nombre d'échantillons est déterminée, la valeur dek variera suivant à la fois la variété et les conditions de croissance. Pour cette raison, la valeurk devrait être fixée en égard aux conditions locales. Au contraire dek il semblerait queK=2,5 a été déterminé avec un degré élevé de sécurité suivantd/(d−1)−K. En déterminantd sur 27 échantillons de matière sèche de pommes de terre en 1965 on a trouvé qued=1,6695 etK=2,494. Si tous les espaces intercellulaires sont remplis d'eau, la teneur en matière sèche est déterminée en multipliant le poids sous eau des tubercules (m _w ) par 2,5. D'autre part, il n'existe aucune méthode pour déterminer la teneur en amidon (m _s ) à partir dem _w . La relation entrem _w etm _s doit être trouvée par des déterminations directes d'amidon. A Tylstrup, 266 déterminations d'amidon ont été faites par la méthodeEwers (1908). Les résultats montrent que le pourcentage d'amidon (m _s ) peut être déterminé parm _s =(m _w +2,39)−2,28. Le pourcentage d'amidon trouvé de 1948 à 1951 est probablement trop élevé en égard à la présence de pectine. Si les échantillons pour détermination de l'amidon sont clarifiés au moyen d'acétate de plomb au pH d'environ 8, la pectine peut être enlevée. Il se révèle cependant qu'apparemment de l'amidon dispara?t aussi en même temps et proportionellement à la teneur en pectine. Ceci peut être évité en ajoutant HCl à l'échantillon jusqu' à ce que le pH soit d'environ 2, avant d'ajouter l'acétate de plomb. Les échantillons filtrés et lavés avec 0,116 N HCl donneront des résultats presque identiques, soit que l'acétate de plomb soit ajouté au pH 2 ou 8. Les déterminations d'amidon ont été faites sur 165 échantillons à Tylstrup de 1962 à 1964. Les analyses montraient quem _s −(m _w +2,42)−4,10. Sur la base des recherches à Tylstrup entre 1952 et 1964 on a établi le Tableau 4 qui permet de déterminer le pourcentage de matière sèche et le pourcentage d'amidon à partir du poids sous eau d'un échantillon de pommes de terre, à la fois quand l'air est ou n'est pas enlevé des tubercules.

     

The effect of stocking rate and fertilizer usage on income variability for dairy farms in England and Wales

A mathematical model of grass production and utilization on a dairy farm is described. Using the model an assessment has been made of the extent to which financial uncertainty arising from year-to-year variability in grass yields, coupled with a preference among farmers for minimizing risks, may explain the relatively low stocking rates and observed nitrogen usages on many dairy farms in England and Wales. The degree of risk has been equated with the probability of profits in a particular year being less than those required to cover the consumption needs and short-term borrowing requirements of the farmer. The results of the analysis indicate that a strategy of minimizing risks may lead to a significantly lower stocking rate than one of maximizing profits. Thus, considerations of risk may lead to stocking rates which are suboptimal from the viewpoint of economic and biological efficiency. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the comparatively low average usage of nitrogen on dairy farms in the UK is determined by risk considerations. On the contrary, increasing nitrogen usage lowers the apparent financial risk at a given stocking rate.     

The effect of initial spring grazing date and subsequent stocking rate on the grazing management, grass dry matter intake and milk production of dairy cows in summer

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of an early (February; F) or delayed (April; A) primary spring grazing date and two stocking rates, high (H) and medium (M), on the grazing management, dry matter (DM) intake of grass herbage and milk production of spring‐calving dairy cows grazing a perennial ryegrass sward in the subsequent summer. Sixty‐four Holstein‐Friesian dairy cows (mean of 58 d in milk) were assigned to one of four grazing treatments (n = 16) which were imposed from 12 April to 3 July 2004. Cows on the early spring‐grazing treatment were grazed at 5·5 cows ha^?1 (treatment FH) and 4·5 cows ha^?1 (treatment FM) while cows on the late‐grazing treatment were grazed at 6·4 cows ha^?1 (treatment AH) and 5·5 cows ha^?1 (treatment AM). The organic matter digestibility and crude protein concentration of the grass herbage were higher on the early‐grazing treatment than on the late‐grazing treatment. The cows on the FM treatment had significantly (P < 0·001) higher milk (24·5 kg), solids‐corrected milk (22·5 kg), fat (P < 0·01, 918 g) and protein (831 g) yields than the other three treatments. Cows on the FM treatment had a higher (P < 0·001) DM intake of grass herbage by 2·3 kg DM per cow per day than cows on the AH treatment, which had a DM intake significantly lower than all other treatments (15·2 kg DM per cow per day). The results of the present study showed that grazing in early spring has a positive effect on herbage quality in subsequent grazing rotations. The study also concluded that early spring‐grazed swards stocked at a medium stocking rate (4·5 cows ha^?1; FM) resulted in the highest DM intake of grass herbage and milk production.     

The effect of oxygen concentration on changes in the microbial population, temperature and dry-matter content in grass silage

The effects of transfusing cores of grass silage with mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen containing 0%, 0·2%, 2%, 5% and 20% oxygen were investigated. Changes in populations of yeasts, lactobacilli and streptococci were measured and the relationship between populations after 7 days' transfusion and oxygen concentration were tested against the predictions of two models, based on Monod and logistic growth functions. Yeasts were related to oxygen by the Monod model, while lactobacilli and streptococci were related by the logistic model. The differences were ascribed to yeasts initiating deterioration by growing aerobically, while lactobacilli and streptococci grew fermentatively once the environment had changed following yeast growth. Dry-matter losses were related to oxygen by the Monod model. Changes in temperature were related to dry matter loss (through measurements of CO₂ evolution) using a simple heat balance model.     

Influence of the place of a stem in the hill on the weight and dry matter content of its tubers

Summary The influence of the place of a stem in the hill was studied for three years in different potato stands in field experiments. Single-sprouted seed pieces were used to build up hills with either 1, 3 or 5 main stems. By harvesting the stems separately and collecting and analysing the tubers from each stem it was possible to describe the tuber populations according to the variables tuber weight and dry matter content. The results show that the mean value and the standard deviation of tuber weight were affected by the place of a stem in the hill. The tuber yield per hectare is also affected by this and by the distribution of the stems in the field. The effect of the place of the stem in the hill on dry matter content of the tubers is not very clear. However, the amount of dry matter accumulated is clearly related to the place of the stem in the hill.

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Zusammenfassung In dieser Untersuchung wurde die Hypothese geprüft, ob der Ort eines Triebes in der Pflanze das Knollenwachstum und die Anh?ufung von Trockensubstanz beeinflusse. Mit Hilfe von einkeimigen Saatknollenstücken wurden drei verschiedene Typen von Stauden gebildet (Abb. 1). Bei Verwendung verschiedener Typen von Best?nden war es auch m?glich festzustellen, ob eine Interaktion bestand zwischen dem Ort des Stengels und dem Typ des Bestandes. Es ist offensichtlich, dass der Platz eines Stengels in der Pflanze das durchschnittliche Knollengewicht und die Standardabweichung der Knollen beeinflusst (Tabellen 2 und 3). Die Ergebnisse zeigen auch, dass die Verteilung der Stengel im Feld den Knollenertrag beeinflusst und dass eine gleichm?ssige Verteilung der Stengel einen h?heren Ertrag gibt als in Gruppen gepflanzte Stengel (Abb. 2). Der Einfluss des Platzes eines Stengels in der Pflanze auf den Trockensubstanzgehalt der Knollen ist nicht sehr klar (Tabellen 4 und 5). In einigen F?llen zeigten die erzielten Ergebnisse einigen Einfluss des Platzes. Der Einfluss des Ortes eines Stengels in der Pflanze auf die Trockensubstanzanh?ufung in Knollen, die zu einem bestimmten Stengel geh?ren, ist in einigen Best?nden sehr ausgepr?gt (Abb. 3). Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung weisen klar auf die Wichtigkeit hin, bei aller Forschungsarbeit mit Kartoffeln den Platz der Stengel in der Pflanze und im Bestand in Betracht zu ziehen.

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Résumé Le but de cette recherche est de voir si l’espace réservé à une tige dans la butte influence la croissance du tubercule et l’accumulation de la matière sèche. On réalise trois types différents de butte au moyen de simples fragments de plant germé (fig. 1). En utilisant des types différents de situation, il est également possible de voir s’il existe une quelconque interaction entre l’espace réservé à une tige et le genre de position. Il para?t évident que l’espace réservé à une tige influence le poids moyen des tubercules et la déviation standard de la population de tubercules (tableaux 2 et 3). Les résultats montrent aussi que la répartition des tiges dans le champ influence la production de tubercules et qu’une égale répartition des tiges donne une production plus élevée que lorsque les tiges sont groupées (fig. 2). L’effet de l’espace réservé à une tige dans la butte sur la teneur en matière sèche n’appara?t pas clairement (tableaux 4 et 5). Dans quelques cas, on obtient des résultats qui montrent une certaine influence de l’espace. L’effet de l’espace réservé à une tige dans la butte sur l’accumulation de la matière sèche par les tubercules d’une certaine tige est très prononcé dans quelques dispositions (fig. 3). Les résultats de la recherche indiquent clairement l’importance de considérer dans toute recherche sur la pomme de terre l’espace réservé aux tiges dans la butte et leur disposition.

     

The effect of cereal incorporation on the fermentation of spring-and autumn-cut silages in laboratory silos

The effect of adding ground oats and barley on the ensiling characteristics of autumn-and spring-harvested ryegrass was studied in laboratory scale silos.
The addition of oats or barley at rates of 13 or 53 kg t⁻¹ of grass significantly improved the fermentation of late autumn ryegrass silage in the first year. Ammonia N levels were reduced from over 20% of total N to 11% or less. Similar addition to autumn-cut ryegrass higher in soluble carbohydrate content in the second year also significantly reduced pH and ammonia levels but all silages were well fermented. Addition of cereals to spring-cut ryegrass containing over 20% soluble carbohydrate had no effect on fermentation. Cereal addition increased silage DM and decreased silage fibre content in all experiments.
The results are discussed in relation to the potential advantage of cereal addition in the ensiling of grass crops.     

The influence of autumn management and companion grass on the development of white clover over winter in mixed swards

Three experiments designed to investigate different facets of autumn management on white clover stolon development are described. The effects of defoliation interval (2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks during 16 weeks from 27 July) were investigated. The shortest interval resulted in the shortest length of stolon material per unit area but cutting interval had no effect on growing point density nor on hardiness of stolon tips evaluated in October, December and January.
Chemical grass suppressants were employed to reduce grass biomass during winter in two experiments to evaluate the influence of grass on white clover development. One experiment involved varying grass tiller density by spraying a perennial ryegrass/white clover sward in October with three rates of three chemical suppressants (Clout, Kerb and Checkmate). Although tiller and clover growing point density were inversely related in January, the overall relationship was not strong.
Clout at l·5kg a.i. ha⁻¹ was sprayed in October on one of two subplots in each of twelve grazed grass/white clover plots that had been maintained at 7 or 9 cm from July to October then grazed to 3–4 cm with sheep. Sward height had no effect on clover population density but the shorter sward had a greater mean node number per secondary stolon branch. By March, suppressing grass resulted in more than double the stolon population density, a higher proportion of plants with tertiary and quaternary branches, and on marked stolons, five times more branches and 60% higher dry matter (DM) produced during winter but with shorter petioles compared with clover in untreated plots.
It is concluded that white clover has the capacity to branch during a mild winter and as stolon branch numbers can suffer a net loss as a result of the presence of the grass canopy, management that controls grass growth during winter should aid over-wintering and improve persistence of white clover.     

The effect of formic acid on the fermentation of ryegrass ensiled at different stages of growth and dry matter levels

In the first experiment the buffering effect of Italian and perennial ryegrass to fonnic acid was determined with three varieties (Leda, S24 and Presto) cut at weekly intervals throughout the growth cycle. The buffer curves showed no significant differences between the three varieties at any one stage of growth and the results were combined to produce regression equations predicting pH values for the three ryegrasses cut at first ear emergence (e.e.), 50% e.e. and 100% e.e. after addition of formic acid. In the second experiment Italian ryegrass was harvested at three stages of growth, wilted to four different DM contents and ensiled in laboratory silos with five levels of formic acid. The interaction of stage of growth, formic acid level and DM content on the water-soluble carbohydrates, ethanol and volatile N contents of tbe resultant silages is discussed.     

The effect of light intensity after anthesis on dry matter distribution and seed yield of Lolium perenne L.

The effect of light intensity after onset of anthesis on dry matter distribution, water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentration and seed filling in Lolium perenne was investigated in a pot experiment. Spaced plants of five clones were brought to flowering and exposed to four light intensities (24%, 57%, 100%, 115% of natural light) from 7 days after onset of anthesis onwards. The two oldest flowering tillers (i.e. the main and the first tiller) were separated from the rest of the plant and dissected after a seed-filling period of 450°Cd (temperature sum counting from 7 days after onset of anthesis). Their stem dry weight and WSC concentration were reduced at the lowest light intensity. WSC amount was more reduced in the first, younger, tiller. Seed yield per ear of the main tiller was reduced by 14% because seed set and average seed weight were lower at the 24% light intensity. Seed yield and seed number per ear of the first tiller were lowered by 21% and 17%, respectively, at the 24% light intensity, but average seed weight was not. The relative contribution of the seeds to total tiller weight was about 20% and was similar for both tillers and all light intensities. WSC concentration and WSC amount in the stem + rachis were reduced only at 24% light in the main tiller and at 24% and 57% light in the first tiller. It is inferred that seed yield was not limited by assimilate availability, but by the ability of the seeds to utilize fully the abundantly available reserves in the stem. The tiller can support seed yield under a wide range of tight intensities.     

The economic consequences of integrating whole-crop wheat with grass production on dairy farms in the UK: a computer simulation

Harvesting techniques, which involve simultaneously preserving and upgrading mature crops of whole cereals using an alkali, have been developed. When treated crops have been fed to sheep and cattle, satisfactory intakes and growth rates have been observed. With the possibility of falling cereal prices, such an end-use for grain crops may be attractive in the future. Accordingly, a mathematical model of the production, harvesting and utilization of whole-crop wheat and grass silage has been developed to examine the economic implications. Using the model, the comparative costs of growing and feeding alkali-treated whole-crop wheat in place of grass silage for winter milk production have been examined.
A milk production system based on whole-crop wheat rather than grass silage is estimated to improve profits by up to £130 per cow. However, the improvement in profitability is very sensitive to assumptions about the uses for surplus land or silage arising from such a switch. Furthermore, for physiological reasons it may be prudent to restrict the quantity of whole-crop wheat fed to about 50% of the total forage intake. Thus, whole-crop cereals may best be seen as a complement to rather than a substitute for grass silage. However, in the absence of data on feeding dairy cows with treated wheat silage, research is required before the computer simulations can be corroborated.     

The effect of timing of slurry application on the microflora of grass, and changes occurring during silage fermentation

Cattle slurry (50 m³ ha^?1 equivalent to 68 kg N ha^?1) was applied to grassland plots 70 d (early application) and 34 d (late application) before ensiling and the retention and survival of slurry and epiphytic micro-organisms on the growing herbage were examined and compared with those on herbage from corresponding fertilizer-treated plots. The populations of lactic acid bacteria, enterococci and enterobacteria on herbage increased dramatically after slurry application. Thereafter, numbers of lactic acid bacteria declined, although they were always higher than on untreated herbage. Number of enterobacteria also declined but were higher on chopped grasses at ensiling [10⁶ colony-forming units (CFU) g^?1 fresh matter (FM)] than they were on hand-cut. unchopped herbages at all previous sampling times. Clostridia numbers were lowest on untreated and highest on slurry-treated herbage, particularly after the late application (>10³ CFU g^?1 FM). Herbage was harvested 70 d and 34 d after slurry application, chopped and ensiled in laboratory silos. All herbages, irrespective of treatment, had low dry matter (DM) values (ranging from 149 to 170 g kg^?1 FM) and fairly low water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentrations (130 g kg^?1 DM or less). The initial rate of pH decline up to 4 d was most rapid in slurry-treated herbages, with all pH values falling to < 4. 5 by day 4 and remaining there until day 21. However, after 90 days the pH values of all silages had risen to > 4. 5. accompanied by a marked decline in lactic acid concentration. Lactic acid-fermenting Clostridia increased in numbers, reaching peak values of 10⁷ CFU g^?1 FM by day 21, remaining high until opening, and were probably responsible for increases in butyric acid levels in all silages, with the highest concentrations occurring in those prepared from slurry-treated herbages. The results suggest that, although some faecal lactic acid bacteria may have beneficial effects in the early stages of fermentation, Clostridia from slurry can survive on herbage for extended periods. The results indicate that the potential for growth of Clostridia in silage may be independent of source or size of the initial population even at tow pH, if other conditions are favourable.     

The effect of delayed autumn harvest on the survival of varieties of perennial ryegrass

The reactions of five early and five late varieties of perennial ryegrass to stimulation of bulky autumn growth and deferment of harvesting were compared in terms of spring growth and subsequent recovery during three winters. Winterkill was marked in 1971–72, particularly when harvesting was deferred to late November, in early varieties S24 and Presto Pajbjerg and in the late variety S23. Least affected among early varieties were Premo and Barvestra (tetraploid) and among late varieties, Perma and Barpastra (tetraploid). All varieties showed rapid recovery. The results are discussed in terms of the significance of winterkill, and the effects of age of sward, variety susceptibility and deferment of autumn defoliation. It is concluded that the form of winterkill which occurs in the west of Scotland can have serious consequences to farm productivity in severe winters. Autumn growth left standing into November can also lead to winterkill. Under good management, varietal differences are unimportant. In a severe winter, no varieties of perennial ryegrass are reliable.     

The effect of urea on the voluntary intake by calves of silages preserved with formaldehyde and formic acid

Perennial ryegrass cv. S23 was preserved by fermentation (C), or with the addition of 8.7 1 formalin (35% w/w formaldehyde) per t fresh herbage (F) or of 9.0 1 equal mixture (by vol.) of formalin and formic acid (85% w/w solution) per t fresh herbage (FF). These three silages comprised the treatments in a three-period, crossover design in which urea (u) was given at the rate of 20 g per kg dietary DM to half the animals. Twelve calves were allocated to the treatment sequences when they were approximately 12 weeks of age from within groups which had previously received diets with or without urea. Calves ate significantly (P< 0.001) less of silages F or FF than of silage C when each was offered alone, but when urea was given, intakes of silages F and FF were significantly (P < 0.001) increased such that the intakes of all three silages with urea were similar (23.6, 19.6, 19.3, 24.2, 24.2, 24.7 ± 0.51 g DM per kg LW for C, F, FF, Cu, Fu and FFu, respectively). Significantly (P<0.01) more of the DM in silage C was digested than in F or FF and the addition of urea significantly (P<0.05) increased the digestibility of DM from silage FF only (73.8, 71.3, 69.8, 74.6, 70.7, 72.5 ± 0.72% for C, F, FF, Cu, Fu and FFu, respectively). When the silages were given alone, calves spent longer eating and ruminating per kg DM ingested with F or FF than with C. The time spent on F and FF was significantly (P<0.01) reduced by the addition of urea (303, 388, 411, 297, 299, 290 ± 18.9 min per kg DM ingested for C, F, FF, Cu and Fu and FFu, respectively). The results presented suggest that urea partially alleviated the reduction in voluntary intake by calves given herbage preserved using formalin, but the mode of action was not clear.