Monitoring udder health and milk quality using somatic cell counts

In this article the use of somatic cell counts for monitoring udder health and milk quality is discussed. Somatic cell count dynamics at quarter, cow, herd and population level are discussed and illustrated with examples. Quarter and cow somatic cell counts directly represent the inflammatory status of the mammary gland. Herd and population somatic cell count are related to the inflammatory process in individual cows but much more reflect the udder health status of the herd and the quality of the raw milk in the herd and the population. Application of monitoring tools in herd health management are illustrated using a case study. Understanding infection dynamics requires precise longitudinal data. Monitoring tools are required to find the areas of risk in the herd. It is inevitable that more complete udder health programs and monitoring systems are to be developed and implemented. These programs are necessarily dynamic and complex. Implementation of complete udder health programs should be accompanied by research efforts to further fine-tune these complete udder health control and monitoring programs.     

Herd health status and management practices on 16 Irish suckler beef farms

Background

There have been few studies published internationally which document herd health management practices in suckler beef herds and no published Irish studies. The study objective was to document herd health status and management practices on sixteen Irish suckler beef herds over a two year period (2009–2010). The farms used in the study were part of the Teagasc BETTER farm beef programme. The mean (s.d.) herd size, stocking rate and farm size was 68 cows (27.6), 2.0 LU/ha (0.3) and 64.3 (21.6) adjusted hectares, respectively. Two questionnaires were designed; 1) a farmer questionnaire to collect information on farm background and current herd health control practices and 2) a veterinary questionnaire to collect information on the extent of animal health advice given by veterinarians to their clients and identification of any on-farm herd health issues.

Results

Dystocia, calf pneumonia, and calf diarrhoea, in that order, were identified as the primary herd health issues in these Irish suckler beef herds. In addition, substantial deficiencies in biosecurity practices were also identified on these farms.

Conclusions

The findings of this study may serve as the focus for future research in animal health management practices in Irish suckler beef herds.     

Evaluation of a monitoring system for assessing animal health in dairy cattle

A monitoring system to assess animal health in dairy farms was developed and applied on 44 farms in an epidemiological study. The objective of the study was to evaluate the applicability of the system for long term monitoring of health data. For this purpose, the quality of the collected data and the acceptance of the system by farmers and veterinarians were investigated. Farmers recorded all health events using a form. Collected data was entered into a central database on a monthly basis. The recording of health data was easy to do and did not take a lot of time. Most of the farmers (89%) used less than 20 minutes per week for the recording. This time need was independent of the herd size. 66% of the farmers found it useful to record health data, especially for improving their overview on health of each single cow. Treatments were reported in 81% of the cases, inseminations and calving in 80% of the cases. All events were reported correctly and precise.     

Developments in veterinary herd health programmes on dairy farms: a review.

This review article addresses some major developments in herd health programmes for dairy farms over the last decades. It focuses particularly on herd health and production management programmes that use protocols and monitoring activities. The article further emphasizes the need for merging herd health programmes with quantitative epidemiological principles and methods. Subsequently, this article points to the latest developments regarding quality assurance in the dairy sector and some quality management methods. Quality should be regarded in its broadest sense. The importance of integrating veterinary herd health programmes and quality (risk) management support at a dairy farm level is stressed. Examples are provided.     

Model of an information system for veterinary fertility monitoring as part of an integrated herd management system

The requirements of the veterinarian's work are changing by reason of an increasing intensity of dairy industry. The model of an information system for monitoring and managing dairy herd health and management system is described. General and special requirements are illustrated. The program requires urgent development for the use of veterinarians and herd owners, including the provision of a data communication link to a veterinary-agricultural information system. The system should integrate the veterinarians into the animal production in order to improve herd health and to secure the veterinarian's role in, and facilitate the development of novel scientific approaches to, dairy herd health and management.     

Challenging the myth of the irrational dairy farmer; understanding decision-making related to herd health

Veterinarians working with dairy cows are suggested to refocus their efforts from being task-oriented providers of single-cow therapy and develop themselves into advice-oriented herd health management advisors. The practising cattle veterinarian's ability to translate knowledge into on-farm application requires a profound understanding of the dairy farm as an integrated system. Consequently, educating and motivating farmers are key issues. To achieve such insight the veterinarian needs to work with several scientific disciplines, especially epidemiology and (behavioural) economics. This trans-disciplinary approach offers new methodological possibilities and challenges to students of dairy herd health management. Advisors working with dairy herd health management may sometimes experience that farmers do not follow their advice. Potentially, this could lead to the interpretation that such farmers are behaving irrationally. However, farmers who are confronted with advice suggesting a change of behaviour are placed in a state of cognitive dissonance. To solve such dissonance they may either comply with the advice or reduce the dissonance by convincing themselves that the suggested change in management is impossible to implement. Consequently, herd health management advisors must understand the fundamental and instrumental relationships between individual farmers' values, behaviour and perception of risk, to stimulate and qualify the farmer's decision-making in a way that will increase the farmer's satisfaction and subjective well-being. Traditionally, studies on herd health economics have focussed on financial methods to measure the value of technical outcomes from suggested changes in management, following the basic assumption that farmers strive to maximise profit. Farmers, however, may be motivated by very different activities, e.g. animal health and welfare or other farmers' recognition, making it impossible to provide 'one-size-fts-all' consultancy because the best decision depends heavily on the internal logic and context-bound reality on each dairy farm. Relevant information may be available, but to be implemented at farm level it has to be communicated effectively. This requires a trustworthy communicator. Consequently, veterinarians are recommended to receive training in communication; keywords in this process are dialogue and reflection. An educational framework based on science and the authors' experience is presented. The aim is to guide practising cattle veterinarians into a personal learning process considered necessary for them to be recognised by farmers as trustworthy dairy herd health advisors.     

Development of a computerized dairy herd health data base for epidemiologic research

A computerized information system for disease surveillance, management and herd health service is presented. The objectives are to describe the incentive method of data collection used to maintain the participation of the farmers and veterinarians in the program, to describe techniques used to select cow records for epidemiologic research and to present incidence rates for the major dairy diseases seen during the study period, 1980–1984. Participating farmers recorded animal events on a daily basis, and their veterinarians recorded the results of all diagnoses and treatments. The data were processed and returned to the farmers and the veterinarians in weekly and monthly reports. The farmers and the veterinarians found that the reports returned to them were useful in managing the health of the herd, and this served as the incentive for continued participation in the program. Lactational incidence rates of the most common clinical dairy diseases were 17.5, 15.1 and 12.8% for metritis, mastitis and cystic follicles, respectively.     

A proposal to leverage high-quality veterinary diagnostic laboratory large data streams for animal health,public health,and One Health

Test data generated by ~60 accredited member laboratories of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians (AAVLD) is of exceptional quality. These data are captured by 1 of 13 laboratory information management systems (LIMSs) developed specifically for veterinary diagnostic laboratories (VDLs). Beginning ~2000, the National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN) developed an electronic messaging system for LIMS to automatically send standardized data streams for 14 select agents to a national repository. This messaging enables the U.S. Department of Agriculture to track and respond to high-consequence animal disease outbreaks such as highly pathogenic avian influenza. Because of the lack of standardized data collection in the LIMSs used at VDLs, there is, to date, no means of summarizing VDL large data streams for multi-state and national animal health studies or for providing near-real-time tracking for hundreds of other important animal diseases in the United States that are detected routinely by VDLs. Further, VDLs are the only state and federal resources that can provide early detection and identification of endemic and emerging zoonotic diseases. Zoonotic diseases are estimated to be responsible for 2.5 billion cases of human illness and 2.7 million deaths worldwide every year. The economic and health impact of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is self-evident. We review here the history and progress of data management in VDLs and discuss ways of seizing unexplored opportunities to advance data leveraging to better serve animal health, public health, and One Health.     

Veterinary dairy herd health management in Europe: constraints and perspectives

The nature of veterinary work in dairy health management in Europe has changed over the past years and will change even more dramatically in the near future. The consumers and the media show increasing concern about animal welfare, safety of products of animal origin and traceability of animal products. Farmers in Europe have to produce under strict, often expensive and laborious regulations, while still commercially competing with farmers outside the EU and not subject to the same rules. Veterinarians should adapt their knowledge and skills to the new challenges and developments of the dairy sector. Dairy farmers nowadays ask for support in areas that go beyond clinical activities: environmental protection, welfare, nutrition, grassland management, economics and business management. Bovine practitioners should be able to advise in many different areas and subjects--that is the challenge to our profession. Veterinary education with regards to cattle health management should start with individual animal clinical work, which constitutes the basis of herd health advisory programmes. The bovine practitioner should then look beyond that and regard the herd as the unit. Each diseased cow or group of cows should be detected early enough to avoid financial losses or such losses should be prevented altogether by detecting and managing risk factors contributing to disease occurrence. Herd health and production management programmes represent the first level to optimise dairy farm performance. Expansions to that should further be considered, comprising both animal health and welfare issues, as well as food safety and public health issues. The latter could be addressed by quality risk management programmes following the HACCP-principles. Cattle veterinarians should follow recent developments and invest in new skills and knowledge in order to maintain their usefulness to the modern dairy farmer. Finally we are convinced that the cattle practitioner should evolve into this direction, otherwise the veterinarian as we know him will miss the train in the next years.     

Development of a microcomputer system for recording veterinary visits, preparing accounts, and as an aid to herd fertility and herd health schemes

A computerised method of recording clinical information from farm animal practice visits and using it for herd fertility visits, herd health schemes, the investigation of disease outbreaks and as a source of data for epidemiological studies was developed in the University of Liverpool farm animal practice. The system stores clinical and reproductive information in a data base from which data can be readily extracted and analysed, and monthly bills produced.     

VAMPP: a veterinary automated management and production control programme for dairy farms (the application of MUMPS for data processing)

The application of MUMPS in a computerised recording system for herd health and production control on dairy farms is reviewed. MUMPS is an interactive multi-user database management system, which is both an operating system and a high level computer language. In this system, coding of veterinary and management events prior to data entry is not needed. Programmes and data structure can easily be adapted and extended due to the features of MUMPS. The system for dairy farms allows epidemiological analyses, due to the flexibility of the programme. The programme is used by farmers and veterinary surgeons by means of terminals linked to a central computer. The system provides action lists for farmers and veterinary surgeons; the information on these lists is presented in a multidisciplinary way. Several herd reports and analyses, including frequency distributions and graphs, are given. These reports enable the investigation of cross-relations between farm aspects, and aid in the detection of problem areas.     

The DairyCHAMP program: a computerised recording system for dairy herds

The DairyCHAMP program is an animal health and management software program that helps daily animal management, herd performance monitoring and problem analysis. Data entry to the program uses a data dictionary and includes an error-checking system that ensures the consistency and appropriateness of data entered. DairyCHAMP performs health management functions, provides a convenient user interface, ensures uniform data across farms by using a standard data dictionary, can be fully integrated with decision-making software programs like DairyORACLE, and is flexible enough to be useful for many types of dairy facilities. Data are entered via a menu-based system. Animal events are organised around reproduction and lactation cycles and health records. Farm records include inventories for drug, feed and semen. Farm parameters can be established which customize the program for an individual farm. The database system is an integration of three schemas: the individual user's view, the community view and the storage system. The individual user's view must be easy to use, while the storage system must be compact enough to fit within the disc storage space on a microcomputer. This conflict requires a translation from one schema to another. The DairyCHAMP program accomplishes this through a coding system which assigns a code number to each event. The program can add synonyms to this event dictionary by assigning the same code number to the synonym the user chooses. The DairyCHAMP program provides access to the large amounts of data required to aid in daily animal management, allow performance monitoring and analyse problems. Its highly integrated system is efficient and easy to use and maintain.     

Results of herd health management in veal calf production

The aim of this study was to document experience gained with herd health management in veal calf production and to describe the calves' most frequent health problems. Fifteen farms with an 'all-in-all-out' animal flow system and 20 farms with a continuous animal flow system were investigated and data on animal movements, housing, feeding, medical treatments, and management were collected. Cadavers underwent pathological examination, and data were recorded from the carcasses of slaughtered calves. On the 15 'all-in-all-out'-farms, 2'747 calves were clinically examined by the contract-veterinarian upon arrival at the farm, and 71,1 % of the calves showed at least one sign of illness. The main causes of death were with 54,9 % digestive disorders (a perforating abomasal ulcer being the most frequent diagnosis), followed by respiratory diseases (29,6 %, mainly pneumonia). The meat color of 25 % of the carcasses was red. Calves from farms with the continuous animal flow system, which recruit mainly animals originating from the same farm, showed significantly better results regarding antibiotic use, performance and carcass quality than those calves from farms with the 'all-in-all-out'-system.     

Visualization and application of disease diagnosis codes for population health management using porcine diseases as a model

Accurate and timely results of diagnostic investigations and laboratory testing guide clinical interventions for the continuous improvement of animal health and welfare. Infectious diseases can severely limit the health, welfare, and productivity of populations of animals. Livestock veterinarians submit thousands of samples daily to veterinary diagnostic laboratories (VDLs) for disease diagnosis, pathogen monitoring, and surveillance. Individual diagnostic laboratory reports are immediately useful; however, aggregated historical laboratory data are increasingly valued by clinicians and decision-makers to identify changes in the health status of various animal populations over time and geographical space. The value of this historical information is enhanced by visualization of trends of agent detection, disease diagnosis, or both, which helps focus time and resources on the most significant pathogens and fosters more effective communication between livestock producers, veterinarians, and VDL professionals. Advances in data visualization tools allow quick, efficient, and often real-time scanning and analysis of databases to inform, guide, and modify animal health intervention algorithms. Value is derived at the farm, production system, or regional level. Visualization tools allow client-specific analyses, benchmarking, formulation of research questions, and monitoring the effects of disease management and precision farming practices. We present here the approach taken to visualize trends of disease occurrence using porcine disease diagnostic code data for the period 2010 to 2019. Our semi-automatic standardized creation of a visualization platform allowed the transformation of diagnostic report data into aggregated information to visualize and monitor disease diagnosis.     

An integrated web system to support veterinary activities in Italy for the management of information in epidemic emergencies

The management of public health emergencies is improved by quick, exhaustive and standardized flow of data on disease outbreaks, by using specific tools for data collection, registration and analysis. In this context, the National Information System for the Notification of Outbreaks of Animal Diseases (SIMAN) has been developed in Italy to collect and share data on the notifications of outbreaks of animal diseases. SIMAN is connected through web services to the national database of animals and holdings (BDN) and has been integrated with tools for the management of epidemic emergencies. The website has been updated with a section dedicated to the contingency planning in case of epidemic emergency. EpiTrace is one such useful tool also integrated in the BDN and based on the Social Network Analysis (SNA) and on network epidemiological models. This tool gives the possibility of assessing the risk associated to holdings and animals on the basis of their trade, in order to support the veterinary services in tracing back and forward the animals in case of outbreaks of infectious diseases.     

Management practices used by white-tailed deer farms in Pennsylvania and herd health problems

OBJECTIVE: To determine current management practices used by white-tailed deer farms in Pennsylvania and identify animal health problems that exist in these herds. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. STUDY POPULATION: Owners and managers of 233 farms in Pennsylvania that raised white-tailed deer. PROCEDURES: A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to participants. RESULTS: Herds ranged in size from 1 to 350 deer. Land holdings ranged from 0.07 to 607 hectares (0.17 to 1,500 acres). Stocking density ranged from 0.1 to 118.6 deer/hectare (0.04 to 48 deer/acre). Most (84%) respondents raised deer for breeding or hunting stock; 13% raised deer exclusively as pets or for hobby purposes, and purpose varied by herd size. Multiple associations were identified between management or disease factors and herd size. The use of vaccines, use of veterinary and diagnostic services, use of pasture, and use of artificial insemination increased as herd size increased. The most common conditions in herds of all sizes were respiratory tract disease, diarrhea, parasitism, and sudden death. The prevalence of respiratory tract disease increased as herd size increased. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that many aspects of herd management for white-tailed deer farms in Pennsylvania were associated with herd size, but that regardless of herd size, many preventive medicine practices were improperly used or underused in many herds.     

HACCP-based quality risk management approach to udder health problems on dairy farms

Against the background of prevailing udder health problems on dairy farms, this paper discusses a new approach to mastitis control. Current udder health control programmes, such as the 'five-point plan', are highlighted and their drawbacks indicated. The concept and principles of hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP) are introduced. The eight core elements of this concept are dealt with by using the example of a dairy herd with a mastitis problem due to Staphylococcus aureus. The various steps to be taken in the development of a HACCP-based quality risk management programme are illustrated through the application of core elements. Finally, it is shown that the HACCP key words, structure, organisation, planning, communication and formalisation; which do not frequently appear in conventional herd health and production management programmes can contribute to better udder health. The role of the veterinarian can be paramount and of added value, if he/she is willing to invest in new knowledge and skills, such as the HACCP concept, farm economics, animal nutrition, and particularly the role of coach to the dairy farmer in the implementation of preventative measures in relation to udder health.     

From 'ecopathology' to 'agroecosystem health'

The 'epidemiologic revolution' of the 1960s arose in response to the inability of reductionist methods to provide practical solutions to the complex problems of health and production in livestock systems. In a farm, there are not only interactions between animal factors and herd husbandry factors such as feeding, housing, and microbiological environment, but also with a number of other 'non-animal' factors. For this reason, a 'global' or 'holistic' approach, aimed at explaining animal health status within the overall dynamic of a livestock production system, was developed in France under the title of 'ecopathology'. In ecopathology, the discipline of epidemiology is integrated into a systemic approach, including: the development of a preliminary conceptual model, sampling based on the structure of the livestock production system, the establishment of a field study by a multidisciplinary team, the organization and management of the animal health and production information, data analysis, the distribution of results to all participants and the development of a preventive medicine programme. The farm is also influenced by the social, economic and environmental setting to which it belongs. To account for this, a change of scale is necessary. The three elements of the livestock production system considered in ecopathology (farmer, herd and resources), at the level of the agroecosystem become a human community (farmers, consumers, decision-makers), an animal population, and the complex of human, social and economic conditions within the system. The concept of agroecosystem health is closely linked to the overall principle of improving the sustainability of the system. This and other measures of the health status of an agroecosystem can be assessed with methods developed by epidemiologists and other disciplines within a system's perspective. In this systems view, ecopathology provides a basis for assessing herd health whereas agroecosystem health develops the broader context into which ecopathology contributes.     

Measuring the impact of different veterinary service programs on dairy herd health and milk production

This paper presents estimates of the relative impacts on reproductive status, the incidence of mastitis, and milk production of different types of veterinary service programs. The effects of veterinary services, categorized as emergency, scheduled and mixed, were modeled as a recursive system in which services affect herd health and health affects milk output. Veterinary services also affect milk output directly. Estimates are based on a small sample of dairies from the Tulare milkshed of California, and attention is concentrated on obtaining accurate data and addressing conceptual problems in modeling the effects of veterinary services.The data were pooled over dairies and months. Multiple regression was used to estimate production or yield functions for measures of herd reproductive health, under health, and milk. The data were corrected for autocorrelation and heteroskedasticity in the regression residuals. Student's t-statistic was used for test of significance. The estimated yield equations were used to calculate changes in health and milk output from changes in veterinary services.Currently available measures of herd reproductive status may not be valid for measuring reproductive health, because they confound management decisions with health status. Available data on udder health are satisfactory. The relative effects of different veterinary service programs were found to differ according to the aspects of herd performance being examined, and it may be important to account for indirect effects of scheduled services that are manifested through management.     

Effects of a two-year dairy herd health management programme on udder health, use of antibiotics and longevity

Since 2003, the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) is realizing a herd health management programme ("pro-Q" project) focussing on udder health. The objectives of the project are: (1) to reduce antibiotic mastitis treatments, (2) to optimise udder health and (3) to improve longevity, measured as averaged number of herd lactations. The farms get expert advice in prevention and treatment on herd- and animal-level. After 2 years, treatment recordings of the 65 investigated farms showed that antibiotic mastitis therapies were reduced from 38 to 26 treatments per 100 cows and year (equals a reduction of 32%). Lactation numbers of the herds increased significantly by 0.2 lactations from 3.3 to 3.5 lactations per cow. Udder health remained constant over all farms during 2 years: theoretical bulk milk cell counts averaged constantly at around 180000 cells/ml. Improvement of udder health on farm level was significantly influenced by higher somatic cell count when the project started and enhanced by farmer's motivation and farm-veterinarians' commitment to the project.