DNA Vaccination Partially Protects Muskellunge against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV-IVb)

Abstract

A DNA vaccine containing the glycoprotein (G) gene of the North American viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) genotype IVb was developed to evaluate the immune response of fish following vaccination and evaluate its efficacy in protecting a susceptible species, the Muskellunge Esox masquinongy, against VHSV-IVb challenge. Seven weeks (539 degree-days) following vaccination with 10 μg of either pVHSivb-G or a control plasmid, Muskellunge were challenged by immersion with 10⁵ plaque-forming units (pfu)/mL of VHSV-IVb. Fish vaccinated with pVHSivb-G had a relative percent survival (RPS) of 45%. Vaccinated fish also had significantly lower mean viral titers in tissues (4.2 × 10² pfu/g) and viral prevalence (4%) than fish receiving the plasmid control vaccine (3.3 × 10⁵ pfu/g; 82%). Neutralizing antibodies were detected 28 d (308 degree-days) postchallenge (11 weeks postvaccination) in 100% of Muskellunge vaccinated with pVHSivb-G compared with only 12% of plasmid-control-vaccinated Muskellunge, suggesting robust induction of a secondary, adaptive immune response. In addition, pVHSivb-G–vaccinated Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss challenged 7 d (100 degree-days) postvaccination with the heterologous novirhabdovirus, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), experienced an RPS of 61%, compared to control fish, suggesting induction of an early and transient nonspecific antiviral immune response. This study provides an important starting point for VHSV-IVb vaccine development and useful information about the antiviral immune response elicited by DNA vaccination in a nondomesticated fish species.

Received May 1, 2016; accepted September 1, 2016     

Passive Immunization of Pacific Herring against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Abstract

The plasma of Pacific herring Clupea pallasii that survived laboratory-induced viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) epizootics contained humoral substances that, when injected into naïve animals, conferred passive immunity against the disease. Among groups exposed to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), injection of donor plasma from VHS survivors resulted in significantly greater survival (50%) and significantly lower tissue titers (1.5 × 10⁵ plaque-forming units [PFU]/g) than the injection of plasma from VHSV-naïve donors (6% survival; 3.7 × 10⁶ PFU/g). Additionally, the magnitude of the protective immune response increased during the postexposure period; plasma that was collected from survivors at 123 d postexposure (931 degree-days) provided greater protection than plasma collected from survivors at 60 d postexposure (409 degree-days). These results provide proof of concept that the VHSV exposure history of Pacific herring populations can be determined post hoc; furthermore, the results can be used as the foundation for developing additional high-throughput diagnostic techniques that may be effective at quantifying herd immunity and forecasting the potential for future VHS epizootics in populations of wild Pacific herring.

Received October 20, 2010; accepted April 7, 2011     

Monoclonal-Antibody-Based Immunodot Assay Distinguishes between Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV) and Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV)

Abstract

An immunodot assay has been developed with two monoclonal antibodies that recognize conserved epitopes on the nucleoproteins of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) and infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). Monoclonal antibody 1NDW14D, which recognizes a conserved epitope on the nucleoprotein of IHNV, recognized 80 of 81 IHNV isolates spotted on nitrocellulose, but none of 8 VHSV isolates. Monoclonal antibody IP5B11, which recognizes a conserved epitope on the nucleoprotein of VHSV, reacted with all eight isolates of VHSV, but with none of the IHNV isolates. Neither monoclonal antibody bound to other rhabdoviruses spotted on nitrocellulose: spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV), pike fry rhabdovirus (PFRV), a new Danish eicosid rhabdovirus unrelated to PFRV, and rhabdovirus anguilla (EVX).     

In Vitro Infection of Salmonid Epidermal Tissues by Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus and Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus

Abstract

The ability of two rhabdoviruses, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), to infect fish skin was investigated by in vitro infection of excised tissues. Virus replication was determined by plaque assay of homogenized tissue extracts, and the virus antigen was detected by immunohistology of tissue sections. Gill, fin, and ventral abdominal skin tissues of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss that had been infected in vitro with a virulent strain of IHNV (193–110) produced substantial increases in virus titer within 24 h. Titers continued to increase up until day 3 of incubation; by this time, virus had increased 1,000-fold or more. This increase in IHNV titer occurred in epidermal tissues of fingerlings and of older fish. In another experiment, IHNV replicated in excised rainbow trout tissues whether the fish had been subject to prior infection with a virulent strain of IHNV (Western Regional Aquaculture Consortium isolate) or whether the fish had been infected previously with an attenuated strain of the virus (Nan Scott Lake, with 100 passes in culture). A virulent strain of VHSV (23/75) replicated effectively in excised gill tissues and epidermal tissues of rainbow trout and chinook salmon O. tshawytscha; however, the avirulent North American strain of VHSV (Makah) replicated poorly or not at all.     

鱼类病毒性出血性败血症病毒诊断胶体金免疫层析方法的建立

为建立一种快速检测鱼类病毒性出血性败血症病毒(Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus,VHSV)的胶体金免疫层析方法(GICA),采用柠檬酸三钠还原法制备胶体金颗粒,以标记纯化的VHSV G蛋白单克隆抗体(MAb)10A7为捕捉抗体,将纯化的抗VHSV N蛋白的MAb 10EN单克隆抗体和羊抗鼠IgG抗体包被在硝酸纤维素膜上,作为检测带与质控带,经试验条件优化,组装形成胶体金免疫层析试纸条。用本试验研制的胶体金试纸条检测VHSV感染的CHSE细胞培养物。结果显示:在检测线和质控线均呈现红色条带,而健康的CHSE细胞培养物对照仅在质控线呈现红色条带;试纸条检出病毒培养物的病毒量最低限为10~(4.0) TCID_(50);随机挑取3个不同批次的试纸条,对阳性样品和阴性样品进行重复试验,未发现差异。特异性试验表明,该试纸条与传染性造血器官坏死病毒(IHNV)、传染性胰坏死病毒(IPNV)、鲤春病毒血症病毒(SVCV)、牙鲆弹状病毒(HRV)、草鱼呼肠孤病毒(GCRV)无交叉反应。将同一批次的试纸条在4℃条件下保存不同时间后进行检测,发现保存6个月的试纸条仍具有良好的稳定性。本试验研发的胶体金诊断试纸条具有良好的特异性、灵敏性和重复性,在快速辅助检测方面具有推广应用价值。     

North American Strain of Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus is Highly Pathogenic for Laboratory-Reared Pacific Herring

Abstract

Specific-pathogen-free Pacific herring Clupea pallasi were reared in the laboratory from eggs and then challenged at 5, 9, and 13 months of age by waterborne exposure to low (10^1.5–2.5 plaque-forming units [PFU] per milliliter), medium (10^3.5–4.5 PFU/mL), or high (10^5.5–6.5 PFU/mL) levels of a North American isolate of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV). The fish were extremely susceptible to the virus, showing clinical disease, mortality approaching 100%, and only a limited increase in resistance with age. Mortality began 4–6 d after exposure and peaked at approximately day 7 in fish exposed to high levels of virus. Whereas the mean time to death showed a significant dose response (P < 0.001), the percent mortality and virus titers in dead fish were generally high in all groups regardless of initial challenge dose. External signs of disease were usually limited to 1–2-mm hemorrhagic areas on the lower jaw and isthmus and around the eye, but 2 of 130 infected fish exhibited extensive cutaneous hemorrhaging. Histopathologic examination of tissues from moribund fish sampled at 2–8 d after exposure revealed multifocal coagulative necrosis of hepatocytes, diffuse necrosis of interstitial hematopoietic tissues in the kidney, diffuse necrosis of the spleen, epidermis, and subcutis, and occasional necrosis of pancreatic acinar cells. Virus titers in tissues of experimentally infected herring were first detected 48 h after exposure and peaked 6-8 d after exposure at 10^7.7 PFU/g. Fish began shedding virus at 48 h after exposure with titers in the flow-through aquaria reaching 10^2.5 PFU/mL at 4–5 d after exposure, just before peak mortality. When the water flow was turned off for 3 h, titers in the water rose to 10^3.5 PFU/mL, and the amount of virus shed by infected fish (on average, greater than 10^6.5 PFU/h per fish) appeared sufficient to sustain a natural epizootic among schooling herring. Taken together, these data suggest that VHSV could be a significant limiting factor for populations of Pacific herring.     

病毒性出血性败血症病毒N基因的病毒样颗粒制备及定值

为制备含有病毒性出血性败血症病毒(VHSV)N基因的RNA病毒样颗粒标准样品,通过RT-RCR扩增VHSV的N基因,将其克隆至含有组氨酸标签的pNH-MS_2his载体中,构建重组原核表达载体pNHMS_2his-N;将重组质粒pNH-MS_2his-N转化至表达菌株BL21(DE3),用1 mmol/L IPTG诱导表达、纯化;对病毒样颗粒进行鉴定及稳定性试验,使用数字PCR对病毒样颗粒进行定值。结果显示,该病毒样颗粒含VHSV N基因序列,并且稳定性良好,定值结果为8×10~6 copies/m L。结果表明,构建的病毒样颗粒可以作为RNA病毒检测时的标准品和质控品使用。     

Susceptibility of Pacific Herring to Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Is Influenced by Diet

Abstract

Groups of specific-pathogen-free Pacific herring Clupea pallasii were highly susceptible to infection by viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV); however, the level of mortality was influenced by diet during the 40–71 d before, during, and after the first exposure to the virus. Cumulative mortality was highest among the herring maintained on an experimental soy-based pellet, intermediate among those maintained on a commercially available fish-meal-based pellet, and lowest among those maintained on a second commercially available fish-meal-based pellet containing β-glucans. Additionally, the herring maintained on the experimental soy-based feed demonstrated less growth than those on the commercially available feeds. The results indicate the importance of standardizing diet during empirical determinations of disease susceptibility and provide insights into the risk factors affecting VHS susceptibility in wild populations.

Received August 26, 2011; accepted November 4, 2011     

Optimization of a Plaque Neutralization Test (PNT) to Identify the Exposure History of Pacific Herring to Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV)

Abstract

Methods for a plaque neutralization test (PNT) were optimized for the detection and quantification of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) neutralizing activity in the plasma of Pacific Herring Clupea pallasii. The PNT was complement dependent, as neutralizing activity was attenuated by heat inactivation; further, neutralizing activity was mostly restored by the addition of exogenous complement from specific-pathogen-free Pacific Herring. Optimal methods included the overnight incubation of VHSV aliquots in serial dilutions (starting at 1:16) of whole test plasma containing endogenous complement. The resulting viral titers were then enumerated using a viral plaque assay in 96-well microplates. Serum neutralizing activity was virus-specific as plasma from viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) survivors demonstrated only negligible reactivity to infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus, a closely related rhabdovirus. Among Pacific Herring that survived VHSV exposure, neutralizing activity was detected in the plasma as early as 37 d postexposure and peaked at approximately 64 d postexposure. The onset of neutralizing activity was slightly delayed in fish reared at 7.4°C relative to those in warmer temperatures (9.9°C and 13.1°C); however, neutralizing activity persisted for at least 345 d postexposure in all temperature treatments. It is anticipated that this novel ability to assess VHSV neutralizing activity in Pacific Herring will enable retrospective comparisons between prior VHS infections and year-class recruitment failures. Additionally, the optimized PNT could be employed as a forecasting tool capable of identifying the potential for future VHS epizootics in wild Pacific Herring populations.

Received November 7, 2016; accepted January 14, 2017 Published online April 4, 2017     

The First Isolation in North America of Infectious,Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) and Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV) in Coho Salmon from the Same Watershed

Abstract

In November 1989, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) was found for the first time in the Soleduck River at the Washington Department of Fisheries Soleduck Hatchery. The virus was isolated from ovarian fluid and kidney-spleen tissue pools from chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and ovarian fluid pools from coho salmon O. kisutch returning to the Soleduck Hatchery. The virus was identified as IHNV by neutralization assays. In December 1989, the virus causing viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHSV) was found in ovarian fluid and milt pools from wild coho salmon obtained from the Soleduck and Bogachiel rivers and held at the Soleduck Hatchery. The virus was identified as VHSV by neutralization and immunoblot assays. These findings and their implications for routine broodstock sampling are discussed.     

Influence of Temperature on the Efficacy of Homologous and Heterologous DNA Vaccines against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia in Pacific Herring

Abstract

Homologous and heterologous (genogroup Ia) DNA vaccines against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (genogroup IVa) conferred partial protection in Pacific Herring Clupea pallasii. Early protection at 2 weeks postvaccination (PV) was low and occurred only at an elevated temperature (12.6°C, 189 degree days), where the relative percent survival following viral exposure was similar for the two vaccines (IVa and Ia) and higher than that of negative controls at the same temperature. Late protection at 10 weeks PV was induced by both vaccines but was higher with the homologous vaccine at both 9.0°C and 12.6°C. Virus neutralization titers were detected among 55% of all vaccinated fish at 10 weeks PV. The results suggest that the immune response profile triggered by DNA vaccination of herring was similar to that reported for Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss by Lorenzen and LaPatra in 2005, who found interferon responses in the early days PV and the transition to adaptive response later. However, the protective effect was far less prominent in herring, possibly reflecting different physiologies or adaptations of the two fish species.

Received August 1, 2016; accepted March 10, 2017 Published online July 11, 2017     

抗CP型、NCP型牛病毒性腹泻病毒高免卵黄抗体的制备

本研究采用致细胞病变（cytopathic,CP）型牛病毒性腹泻病毒（bovine viral diarrhea virus,BVDV）标准毒和非致细胞病变（noncytopathic,NCP）型新疆优势毒株免疫产蛋鸡,用改良PEG法提取卵黄抗体(IgY),并对提取的IgY采用SDS-PAGE检测纯度,间接ELISA检测免疫后每隔7 d的抗体效价,并测定所得抗体对NCP型BVDV的中和效价。结果表明,用该法提取的IgY纯度较高;间接ELISA结果证明,经过4次免疫后,抗CP型BVDV的效价达到1∶32000,抗NCP型BVDV的效价达到1∶40000,3个月后再次检测,卵黄抗体效价未见明显下降。最后一次免疫14 d的抗体对NCP型BVDV的中和效价达到1×10_^-3。     

抗BVDV卵黄抗体的制备

采用牛病毒性腹泻病毒(BVDV)免疫产蛋母鸡,然后用水稀释法成功地从卵黄中分离出抗BVDV免疫球蛋白(抗-BVDV IgY)。建立起测定鸡蛋中特异性抗BVDV活性的间接ELISA方法,并采用此方法检测每次免疫后第10天的抗体滴度。结果表明,蛋鸡在首次免疫后第10天,卵黄中可以检测到抗-BVDV IgY;5次免疫后,抗体效价达到1:6400,半年后仍能维持在该水平。