Occurrence of Aeromonas salmonicida,Renibacterium salmoninarum,and Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in Ontario Salmonid Populations

Abstract

The results of samples collected from private and government fish farms and wild and feral fish populations in Ontario from 1981 to 1995 were synthesized to obtain prevalence estimates in salmonids at both the fish and site levels for three pathogens. Renibacterium salmoninarum and Aeromonas salmonicida were both detected on at least one site for every year investigated. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR) culture stations had the highest percentages of sites with infected fish for R. salmoninarum. Natural water bodies had the highest percentages of sites with infected fish for A. salmonicida. Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) was only detected sporadically on some commercial farms and never in OMNR hatcheries or in wild or feral fish. Although screening for any virus that would yield cytopathological effect was carried out during all the years surveyed, no virus other than IPNV was isolated. The low prevalence and “source-specific” presence of IPNV in Ontario demonstrates the necessity of representative sampling for the detection of rare pathogens. It was estimated that, overall, less than 1% of all fish in the sampled populations were infected with each of the three pathogens for almost every year studied. The importance of summarizing pathogen-testing data and the possible implications on disease control policy planning and assessment are discussed.     

Biochemical and Antigenic Properties of the First Isolates of Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus from Salmonid Fish in Europe

Abstract

The first isolates of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) recovered from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (formerly Salmo gairdneri) in France and Italy were compared to six representative strains from North America by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of virion polypeptides and neutralization by monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). All three IHNV isolates from Europe had similar polypeptide profiles when compared by SDS-PAGE. An analysis of the antigenic relatedness of the European isolates to representative strains from North America showed that they were clearly different from viruses obtained from salmonids in California. The RB/B5 MAb, which was developed against virus isolated from adult steelhead (anadromous rainbow trout) reared in central Oregon, neutralized all isolates examined. The 193–110/B4 MAb, developed against IHNV isolated from infected yearling rainbow trout in southern Idaho, neutralized all isolates tested except those from California. The SRCV/A4 MAb, developed against Sacramento River chinook virus (SRCV) isolated from adult spring chinook salmon O. tshawytscha in central California, was the least reactive, and strong neutralization was observed only with the SRCV strain of IHNV from California. However, partial reactivity of the virus isolates from France with the SRCV/A4 MAb distinguished them from the virus recovered from salmonids in Italy.     

Susceptibility of Four New Salmonid Cell Lines to Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus

Abstract

Four salmonid cell lines, CoE 45, CoE 115, CoE 345, and RBTE 45, were established from embryonic tissues of coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch and rainbow trout O. mykiss. In vitro challenges of the new lines were conducted with four isolates of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). Two of the IHNV isolates used for the challenges were derived from infected tissues of rainbow trout, one was derived from chinook salmon O. tshawytscha, and the other isolate was derived from coho salmon. To standardize the virus challenges of the new cell lines, several established piscine cell lines (EPC, CHSE 214, CSE-119, RTH-149, RTG, and RTS) were challenged in the same way as the new lines. Each of the lines was challenged with virus at a single low multiplicity of infection (0.01 plaque-forming unit per cell). Virus yields were quantitated by plaque assay on epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells on day 3. Results of the challenge experiments revealed different levels of production of virus for each isolate on the various cell lines. Overall, the new cell line derived from rainbow trout, RBTE 45, was quite susceptible to all viruses tested. The three cell lines newly derived from coho salmon embryo were not as resistant to the replication of IHNV as was the established coho salmon cell line, CSE-119. An established cell line, EPC, derived from an epithelial tumor of common carp Cyprinus carpio, remained the most susceptible to all four IHNV isolates tested.     

Distribution of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV) Based on Surveillance Programs in Freshwater Trout Farms of Mexico

Diagnostic testing was performed between 2000 and 2012 to determine the distribution of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) in the main states of the Mexican Republic with freshwater Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) farms. This virus was positively identified from Rainbow Trout farms in seven of the eight states assessed. Due to nonnormal data distribution, a logistic regression model was applied for statistical analysis, the results of which indicated that virus prevalence was variable between states, with moderate but significant differences. Regarding the time periods evaluated, IPNV prevalence was higher during the first years of the study. The susceptible, infected, removed model was used to examine this phenomenon, which indicated that the decreased prevalence during the latter years of the study could be associated with a real elimination of the infection. The information of the cases analyzed also suggests a relationship with the irregularity in the submission of samples to the laboratory and emphasizes other factors that have contributed to the transmission of IPNV throughout the country.

Received November 10, 2014; accepted December 5, 2015.     

传染性胰脏坏死病毒逆转录聚合酶链式反应法（RT-PCR）的研究

本文针对IPNVA片段VP5基因和VP3基因分别设计了两对特异性引物,同时优化了反应体系和反应条件,建立了检测IPNV逆转录聚合酶链式反应法。并用优化好的反应条件对从人工感染的斑马病鱼中提取的核酸进行扩增,分别扩增出了224bp和206bp的目的条带。     

Genotyping of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus Isolates from Mexico State

Abstract

The infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV; genus Aquabirnavirus) affects salmon and trout, causing high mortality in first-feeding fry. The classification of this virus includes nine serotypes and seven genogroups. In Mexico, two different isolates were identified in 2000 and 2008, respectively. Both isolates were classified into genogroup I according to the RNA genome of this virus. As Mexico is importing rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss eggs from different countries, the aim of this study was to genotype IPNV isolates obtained from four rainbow trout producer regions within the state of Mexico. We utilized a fragment of the VP2* (outer capsid protein) gene sequence of Mexican IPNV isolates as a molecular marker to determine the genogroup to which they belong. Although all Mexican IPNV isolates were grouped into genogroup I, we identified genetic diversity among these isolates, and 14 unique nucleotide sequence types were associated with the four producer regions in Mexico State.

Received December 21, 2010; accepted July 27, 2011     

虹鳟鱼传染性胰脏坏死病病毒的分离与鉴定

目的探讨传染性胰脏坏死病毒（IPNV）在虹鳟鱼中的存在与传播,为我国北方地区IPNV疫情动态监测和防控提供依据。方法从辽宁省某渔场中患传染性胰脏坏死病的虹鳟鱼中分离出1株优势毒株,对新分离出来的菌株进行培养增殖、感染试验及理化性质的鉴定。结果新分离的IPNV在CHSE细胞上增殖良好,且可引起良好的病变,病毒滴度达10^-805／0．1mL。分离毒对酸、碱和热均稳定,对乙醚不敏感,病毒的复制不被FUDR抑制。根据IPNV的保守基因N基因序列,设计特异性引物,结果扩增出224bp的片段。对该片段进行测序分析,发现与IPNV的参考序列有较高的相似性,表明该毒株为传染性胰脏坏死病毒。结论IPNV已在北方虹鳟鱼中存在,可为我国北方IPNV疫情动态监测和防控提供依据。     

In Vitro Infection of Salmonid Epidermal Tissues by Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus and Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus

Abstract

The ability of two rhabdoviruses, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), to infect fish skin was investigated by in vitro infection of excised tissues. Virus replication was determined by plaque assay of homogenized tissue extracts, and the virus antigen was detected by immunohistology of tissue sections. Gill, fin, and ventral abdominal skin tissues of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss that had been infected in vitro with a virulent strain of IHNV (193–110) produced substantial increases in virus titer within 24 h. Titers continued to increase up until day 3 of incubation; by this time, virus had increased 1,000-fold or more. This increase in IHNV titer occurred in epidermal tissues of fingerlings and of older fish. In another experiment, IHNV replicated in excised rainbow trout tissues whether the fish had been subject to prior infection with a virulent strain of IHNV (Western Regional Aquaculture Consortium isolate) or whether the fish had been infected previously with an attenuated strain of the virus (Nan Scott Lake, with 100 passes in culture). A virulent strain of VHSV (23/75) replicated effectively in excised gill tissues and epidermal tissues of rainbow trout and chinook salmon O. tshawytscha; however, the avirulent North American strain of VHSV (Makah) replicated poorly or not at all.     

Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus: Transmission from Infectious to Susceptible Rainbow Trout Fry

Abstract

Fry of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss were exposed to serotype VR-299 of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) by using a standardized immersion challenge. In concurrent experiments, fish were monitored for 11 d for excretion of IPNV or monitored for 9 d for excretion and transmission of IPNV to susceptible rainbow trout fry. Immersion-challenged fish began excreting virus within 2 d after challenge. The rate of IPNV excretion per fish increased steadily from about day 4 to day 8 and then decreased. Virus concentrations in tissues of immersion-challenged fish increased exponentially. Susceptible fish became infected with IPNV within 4 d after being introduced to immersion-challenged fish (e.g., 2 d after the challenged fish began excreting virus). By 9 d, 84% of the susceptible fish were infected with IPNV.     

Effects of Elevated Water Temperature and Immunosuppressant Treatment on Prevalence and Titer of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in Naturally Infected Brook Trout

Abstract

Using fingerlings of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis naturally infected with infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), we demonstrated that elevated water temperature and treatment with the immunosuppressant triamcinolone acetonide (generic Kenalog®) significantly increases the titer of IPNV and probably also the prevalence of the infection. Stress-promoting treatments could potentially enhance the capability to detect various fish viral agents.     

传染性胰脏坏死病毒实时荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法的建立及应用

传染性胰脏坏死病毒(infectious pancreatic necrosis virus,IPNV)是一种严重危害鲑鳟鱼类的重要传染性病原。为建立IPNV快速检测方法,根据IPNV VP2蛋白编码基因保守序列,设计并筛选出特异性引物和Taq Man探针,并优化筛选引物以及探针检测浓度、退火温度和退火时间,建立了一种实时荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法,并对方法进行了评价。结果显示：该方法灵敏度高,对IPNV的检测限为5 copies/μL;特异性强,对传染性造血器官坏死病毒、鲤春病毒血症病毒、病毒性出血性败血症病毒、草鱼呼肠孤病毒、流行性造血器官坏死病毒等其他病毒核酸扩增均呈阴性;重复性良好,组内与组间重复平均变异系数均小于3%;用本研究建立的实时荧光定量RT-PCR方法,对40份经病毒分离鉴定的样品进行IPNV检测,符合率为100%。结果表明,本研究建立的方法具有快速、特异、敏感等优点,可检测病毒含量较低的组织样品,对于IPNV的快速检测更具优势。     

Detection of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus from the Leeches Hemiclepsis marginata and Hirudo medicinalis

Leeches have been reported to harbor several important fish pathogens, including spring viremia of carp virus, infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), and also may contain blood protozoa. In the present study, leeches were collected from water bodies located in Kurdistan province, Iran. The specimens were tested for IHNV, VHSV, and infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) using the PCR method. The results showed that two different species of leeches, Hemiclepsis marginata and Hirudo medicinalis, were infected by IPNV among the seven species studied. The infected leeches were found in areas that were polluted with untreated sewage coming from upstream fish farms culturing Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. In addition, the fish at fish farms in the vicinity had been infected with IPNV 9 months previously. Our results showed that the virus causing infectious pancreatic necrosis is present in the leeches H. marginata and H. medicinalis, suggesting that leeches are a potential source of IPNV in fish farms.

Received October 14, 2015; accepted June 1, 2016 Published online September 29, 2016     

Use of the Delphi Panel Method to Assess Expert Perception of the Accuracy of Screening Test Systems for Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus and Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus

Abstract

Fifteen people, considered to be experts on fish virology, participated in a Delphi panel exercise to solicit opinion concerning the importance of factors that influence the ability of cell culture to detect infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) or infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in asymptomatic infected salmonids. Panelists rated many factors as having a strong impact on the sensitivity of cell culture and particularly emphasized the importance of technical and laboratory-related factors. Participants also provided their perceived estimates of the sensitivity and specificity of test systems—consisting of cell culture followed by serum neutralization, specific gene probes, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or fluorescent-antibody microscopy—for IPNV and IHNV in asymptomatic salmonids. The sensitivities estimated by panelists for optimal conditions were less than 70% for both IPNV and IHNV. There was substantial panelist uncertainty about the estimates, as indicated by large variances among individual responses. The system using serum neutralization for virus identification was perceived to have the highest sensitivity. All panelists estimated specificity to be very high. The importance of these findings with respect to the design of surveillance, quality assurance and control programs, and the interpretation of screening data are discussed.     

鱼类病毒性神经坏死病研究现状

鱼类病毒性神经坏死病是近年来严重危害海水鱼类,引起暴发性流行的重大病害之一。目前,已知受神经坏死病毒感染的鱼类达40多种。该病毒包括4 种血清型,即红鳍东方鲀神经坏死病毒、拟鲹神经坏死病毒、条斑星鲽神经坏死病毒、赤点石斑鱼神经坏死病毒。患病鱼常表现出游泳异常,身体失去平衡等典型神经性疾病症状。病理组织学观察可见中枢神经系统特别是脑和视网膜出现严重的坏死、空泡化。病毒可通过垂直和水平两种途径传播。关于病毒的命名、感染机制及其防治还需深入研究。     

Assessment of the Risk of White Sturgeon to become Infected and Potential Carriers of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus

Abstract

Little scientific information is available to assess whether White Sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus can become infected and potential carriers of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV). To assess this risk, monitoring results of adult and progeny White Sturgeon were examined from waters historically stocked with salmonid fish known to be IPNV carriers. From 1999 through 2004 White Sturgeon from a total of 30 separate families whose parentage came from waters historically stocked with IPNV carrier fish were tested. Duplicate groups of 25 juvenile Snake River White Sturgeon were waterborne exposed to 1.0×10⁴ 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50)/mL of water for 1 h and an additional group was injected intraperitoneally with 1.0×10⁵ TCID50/fish. A negative control group was handled similarly but was not exposed to the virus. No morbidity was detected in any of the treatment groups or the negative control. At 34, 40, 47, and 54 d postexposure to IPNV, virus reisolation was attempted on five fish from each group, and an additional five fish from each group were examined for histological changes consistent with an IPNV infection. At 34 and 40 d postinjection with IPNV, 20% (one of five) of the fish tested positive for the virus per sample interval; however, fish from groups that were waterborne-exposed to IPNV were all negative. At 47 and 54 d after exposure or injection with IPNV an additional five fish from each group were tested at each sample interval and all results were negative. Histological analysis of target tissue obtained from five fish per group at 34 and 54 d postinfection also failed to detect any consistent change associated with an IPNV infection. These results suggest that the risk of White Sturgeon to become infected and develop into potential carriers of IPNV is negligible.

Received May 21, 2013; accepted July 8, 2013     

Serological Properties of Neutralizing Antibodies Induced by Vaccination of Rainbow Trout with Distinct Strains of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus

Abstract

Adult rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss were immunized with formalin-inactivated, concentrated infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV). Although the immune response was variable among fish inoculated with a given virus type, sera were obtained that contained high titers of antibodies against known representatives of each of the three major serotypes and several unclassified field isolates of IPNV. Preparations of semipurified macroglobulins from the rainbow trout were subsequently used for comparative cross-neutralization testing of viruses. Cross-reactions were generally low between serotypes; however, diversity and heterogeneity existed among viral isolates from North American hatcheries (e.g., within serotype 1). For example, the Jasper subtype was clearly serologically distinguishable from other western Canadian isolates and from typical eastern Canadian isolates, which were similar to U.S. isolate VR 299. Specific salmonid immunoglobulin is suggested as a possible supplemental reagent, together with mammalian polyclonal and monoclonal antibody, for determining the epidemiology of IPNV in North America.     

Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) in Coho Salmon

Abstract

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) causes important losses of chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka, and rainbow trout and steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss on the west coast of North America. Although coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch are considered resistant to IHNV infection, the virus was detected in numerous adult coho salmon returning to Trinity River Hatchery, California, in 1985 and 1986. The virus was isolated from internal organs and ovarian fluids of these fish. Antigenic and structural polypeptides of the viruses were identical in adult coho and chinook salmon collected at the same location. Chinook salmon and rainbow trout alevins exhibited high degrees of susceptibility to IHNV obtained from adult coho and chinook salmon. Coho salmon alevins were resistant to both virus isolants.     

Growth Inhibition of Bacterial Fish Pathogens and Quorum-Sensing Blocking by Bacteria Recovered from Chilean Salmonid Farms

The main goal of this study was to find bacterial isolates with the ability to inhibit the growth of the fish pathogens Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio anguillarum, and Flavobacterium psychrophilum and to inhibit the blockage of the quorum-sensing (QS) system. A total of 80 gram-negative strains isolated from various freshwater Chilean salmonid farms were studied. We determined that 10 strains belonging to the genus Pseudomonas inhibited at least one of the assayed fish pathogens. Of these, nine strains were able to produce siderophores and two strains were able to inhibit the growth of all assayed pathogenic species. When the 80 strains were examined for QS-blocking activity, only the strains Pseudomonas sp. FF16 and Raoultella planticola R5B1 were identified as QS blockers. When the QS-blocker strains were analyzed for their ability to produce homoserine lactone (HSL) molecules, thin-layer chromatography analysis showed that both strains were able to produce C6-HSL– and C8-HSL–type molecules. Strain R5B1 did not show growth inhibition properties, but strain FF16 also led to inhibition of growth in A. hydrophila and F. psychrophilum as well as to siderophore production. Pseudomonas sp. FF16 exhibited potentially useful antagonistic properties and could be a probiotic candidate for the salmon farming industry.

Received July 31, 2014; accepted December 17, 2014     

Enhanced Detection of Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus and Other Fish Viruses by Pretreatment of Cell Monolayers with Polyethylene Glycol

Abstract

To improve quantification of very low levels of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in samples of tissue, ovarian fluid, or natural water supplies, we tested the ability of polyethylene glycol (PEG) to enhance the sensitivity and speed of the plaque assay system. We compared 4, 7, and 10% solutions of PEG of molecular weight 6,000, 8,000, or 20,000 applied at selected volumes and for various durations. When cell monolayers of epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC), fathead minnow (FHM), chinook salmon embryo (CHSE-214), and bluegill fry (BF2) were pretreated with 7% PEG-20,000, they produced 4-17-fold increases in plaque assay titers of IHNV. The plaque assay titers of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus, chum salmon reovirus, and chinook salmon paramyxovirus were also enhanced by exposure of CHSE-214 cells to PEG, but the titers of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus and Oncorhynchus masou virus were not substantially changed. Plaques formed by IHNV on PEG-treated EPC cells incubated at 15°C had a larger mean diameter at 6 d than those on control cells at 8 d; this suggests the assay could be shortened by use of PEG. Pretreatment of EPC cell monolayers with PEG enabled detection of IHNV in some samples that appeared negative with untreated cells. For example, when ovarian fluid samples from chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha were inoculated onto untreated monolayers of EPC cells, IHNV was detected in only 11 of 51 samples; 17 of the samples were positive when PEG-treated EPC cells were used.     

传染性造血器官坏死病毒焦磷酸测序检测技术的建立

根据传染性造血器官坏死病毒(IHNV)基因序列,设计了IHNV最为保守的指纹序列,以及测序引物,建立了IHNV焦磷酸测序检测方法。对所构建的IHNV焦磷酸检测方法进行特异性试验和灵敏度检测。结果表明,所建立的方法特异性好,在8种鱼类病毒中能够特异性检测出目的病毒,检测方法灵敏度高,最低检出核酸量为10pg/μL。对建立的焦磷酸测序检测方法进行了实际应用研究,选取国内采集与进口的鱼类样本共计80批次进行IHNV检测。结果显示,焦磷酸测序检测方法可以有效的检出常规RTPCR不能检出的假阴性样本和弱阳性样本,该方法的灵敏度和特异性可以满足水生动物疫病检测的需要。