Soil nitrogen fertilisation as a maternal effect on Buglossoides arvensis seed germinability

Different ecological strategies are developed by weed species to improve their fitness under unpredictable environmental conditions. Maternal effects are a way to enhance the performance of progeny. The external ecological environment of mother plants influences phenotypic traits of the progeny, such as seed germinability. Buglossoides arvensis is a facultative winter annual weed species present in cereal crops of the semiarid temperate region of Argentina. Recently, the intensification of agricultural systems has led to a significant increment of external inputs, such as nitrogen fertilisers. In this work, we aimed to determine the effect of different maternal nitrogen fertiliser levels on the germinability of two successive progenies (F₁–F₂). A population‐based model was used to estimate thermal time parameters. Our results indicated that under field conditions, nitrogen fertilisation produced an increment on the germinability of the progeny. Nitrogen supply promoted a widening of the permissive germination thermal range through an increment in the mean maximum germination temperature. However, different maternal fertilisation levels did not influence germination thermal time requirements either in F₁ or F₂ progenies_. It might be inferred that a significant increment of nitrogen fertiliser supply could increase the probability of occurrence of very early emergence fluxes of B. arvensis. From a weed control perspective, the occurrence of early cohorts during summer may demand a redesign of control tactics, to minimise the potential economic and environmental impact of chemical interventions.     

Assessment of the allelopathic potential of 17 Iranian barley cultivars in different development stages and their variations over 60 years of selection

Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the allelopathic potential of 17 Iranian barley cultivars in four development stages and their variations over the last 60 years of collection. Imbibed seeds and water leachates that were extracted from the barley plants at the seedling, tillering, stem elongation, and heading stages were used for the bioassays, including filter paper, neighboring barley seeds in soil, and soil mixed with dried barley residues. The experiments were conducted with the use of wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis) as the test plant. The Germination Rate Index (GRI) and emergence of S. arvensis were inhibited on both the filter paper and soil. The highest inhibitory effect was seen with the tillering stage's water leachate on filter paper. The GRI decreased in response to the increased density of barley imbibed seeds. The germination was less affected by the presence of barley seeds from the soil than those from the filter paper. The GRI of S. arvensis seeds was lower in the older than in the recently developed cultivars. Although there were some fluctuations in the GRI value with time, the germination inhibitory effect has decreased as new, higher‐yielding cultivars have been released.     

Germination strategies of annual and short-lived perennial species in the Arabian Desert

Germination timing is highly regulated in short-lived plant species since it strongly influences recruitment success of vegetation. In deserts, the spatiotemporal distribution of plant-available water is highly episodic and unpredictable, making winter months more favorable for seed germination when other abiotic conditions co-occur. We hypothesized that changes in photoperiod and thermoperiod would impact germination more in seeds that had undergone in situ storage. We assessed 21 annual and short-lived perennial species in the Arabian Desert to find (1) if seeds were dormant at maturity, (2) if in situ seed storage increased germination percentage compared with no storage, (3) if photoperiod and thermoperiod germination requirements were influenced by in situ storage, and (4) if a phylogenetic association in seed germination could be observed. Seeds of each species collected in early 2017 were divided into two batches. One was tested for germination within one week (fresh seeds). The other was stored in situ at the maternal location (stored seeds) until October 2017 and tested for seed germination in the first week of November. Seed germination was conducted in incubators at two thermoperiods (15°C/20°C and 20°C/30°C; 12 h/12 h), and two photoperiods (12 and 0 h light per day). Results indicated that seed germination percentages of 13 species were significantly enhanced by in situ storage. A thermoperiod response was exhibited by stored, but not fresh seeds. Light exposure increased germination of fresh seeds but had only a minimal effect on stored seeds. Germination traits exhibited no phylogenetic correlation. This result indicated that selection pressure for germination strategy was stronger than that for taxonomic traits of these desert species.     

Effects of water stress and NaCl stress on different life cycle stages of the cold desert annual Lachnoloma lehmannii in China

For a plant species to complete its life cycle in arid and saline environments, each stage of the life cycle must be tolerant to the harsh environmental conditions. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of water stress (water potentials of -0.05, -0.16, -0.33, -0.56, -0.85 and -1.21 MPa) and NaCl stress (50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 mmol/L NaCl) on seed germination percentage, seedling survival and growth, juvenile growth and plant reproduction of Lachnoloma lehmannii Bunge (Brassicaceae), an cold desert annual that grows in the Junggar Basin of Xinjiang, China in 2010. Results indicated that low water stress (-0.05 and -0.16 MPa) had no significant effect on seed germination percentage. With a decrease in water potential, germination percentage decreased, and no seeds germinated at -0.85 and -1.21 MPa water stresses. Germination percentage of seeds was significantly affected by NaCl stress, and higher germination percentages were observed under non-saline than saline conditions. An increase in NaCl concentrations progressively inhibited seed germination percentage, and no seeds germinated at ≥400 mmol/L NaCl concentration. Non-germinated seeds were transferred from both PEG (polyethylene glycol-6000) and NaCl solutions to distilled water for seed germination recovery. The number of surviving seedlings and their heights and root lengths significantly decreased as NaCl stress increased. About 30% of the plants survived and produced fruits/seeds at 200 mmol/L NaCl concentration. Thus, seed germination, seedling establishment and reproductive stage in the life cycle of L. lehmannii are water- and salt-tolerant, with seedlings being the least tolerant. These tolerances help explain why this species can survive and produce seeds in arid and saline habitats.     

Factors affecting the seed germination and seedling emergence of redflower ragleaf (Crassocephalum crepidioides)

Redflower ragleaf (Crassocephalum crepidioides) is a weed, as well as a minor vegetable, in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The influence of environmental factors and seed conditions on the germination and emergence of redflower ragleaf have been evaluated in order to help understand its distribution and to develop effective management strategies. The seeds germinated at a constant temperature in the range of 10–30°C and reached a maximum at 15–20°C. The highest germination rate was recorded at an alternating temperature of 20/15°C (day/night). The seeds germinated over a wide pH range (2–12), with the highest germination rate at between 4 and 10. Germination under saturated and flooded conditions was also high. The germination of seeds from opened (mature) capitula was significantly higher than from partially opened or unopened capitula. The germination of seeds without a pappus was significantly higher than for seeds with a pappus. The germination rate of 1 year old seeds decreased drastically when compared to that of freshly harvested seeds. The seedling emergence rate was ～63% for those seeds placed on the soil surface, but no seedling emerged from a depth of ≥1 cm. These results indicate that redflower ragleaf seeds can germinate in various environmental conditions, but that the percentage that germinates will be different in different environments. Regeneration could be effectively prevented by at least a 1 cm soil covering or by destroying the plant before the capitula open. In contrast, freshly harvested seeds from opened capitula should be sown on the soil surface when redflower ragleaf is to be cultivated as a vegetable.     

Study of seasonal variation in dormancy of Spergula arvensis L. seeds in a condensed annual temperature cycle

Changes in dormancy of Spergula arvensis seeds were studied during pre-incubation at constant temperatures and under a temperature regime that condensed the annual temperature cycle into 73 days. Each day in the regime represented the mean day and night temperatures and day lengths of 5 successive days of an average year in The Netherlands. Incubation occurred in water or loamy sand, in darkness. Germination of the seeds was tested in water or KNO₃ over a range of temperature. Seeds were irradiated with saturating doses of red light. In half of the treatments, pre-incubated seeds were dehydrated at the transfer to the conditions of the germination test. Breaking of dormancy occurred under conditions of 'spring'. It did not depend on exposure to low‘winter’temperatures, but was induced by rising 'spring’temperatures. Seeds developed secondary dormancy in late‘autumn'. The expression of the changes in dormancy that were induced during pre-incubation depended on the conditions of the germination test. Light, nitrate and dehydration stimulated germination. The experiments predicted that field emergence from nitrate-poor soils that have not been dehydrated will be restricted to a short period in autumn, whereas disturbance of nitrate-rich soils followed by a dry spell will stimulate germination of S. arvensis seeds from early spring to late autumn. The data presented good explanations for the cosmopolitan character and the serious weediness of this species. Its classification as a summer or winter annual is discussed.     

Dormancy,germination and emergence of Urochloa panicoides regulated by temperature

Urochloa panicoides is an annual weed of summer crops. In Argentina, in subhumid areas with monsoon rainfall, it germinates and establishes in a single flush. To (i) identify the environmental factors that modify its seed dormancy level and germination and (ii) quantify the parameters describing the thermal behaviour of the germination and emergence dynamics of this weed under non‐limiting water conditions, we established a set of germination experiments performed (i) under controlled conditions using seeds after ripened for 3 or 6 months in different thermal and hydric conditions and (ii) under field conditions, where the soil temperature was modified by applying different shading levels. Seed dormancy level remained high with 3 months after ripening in all treatments. After 6 months, seeds stored at 4°C in dry conditions did not germinate at any temperature, while seeds stored at 25°C in dry conditions and in situ germinated c. 20% and 60% respectively. Germination percentage was higher in seeds harvested before their natural dispersal. The base, optimum and maximum temperatures for seed germination were 6, 35 and 45°C respectively. Shading reduced the number of emerged seedlings, possibly by reducing the soil thermal amplitude. The results explained the dormancy‐breaking mechanism of U. panicoides that allows a high germination rate in the field when rainfall occurs.     

Chemical and environmental factors driving germination of Solanum americanum seeds

Solanum americanum Mill. is a weed that occurs with a number of crops, and it is known for its high seed production and its staggered germination. The objective of this work was to evaluate the germination behavior of S. americanum seeds under the influence of chemical and environmental factors. In the laboratory, we tested the effect on germination of (i) constant and alternating temperatures, (ii) seed washing, (iii) exposure time and concentration of chemical treatments and (iv) seeding depth and soil covered with plant residue on seedling emergence. The variables analyzed were germination percentage, germination rate index, seedling emergence and length of the seedlings. The results indicated that alternating temperatures are the main way to promote germination of S. americanum; however, chemical treatments can help to increase the germination percentage and rate index. There was no increase in germination with seed washing, with the exception of KNO₃ application. A GA₃ concentration of 0.84 g L^?1 and an exposure time of 21.22 h in 0.2% of KNO₃ promoted the highest germination of S. americanum. Germination occurs when seeds remain on the soil surface and are not covered by crop residue.     

贯叶金丝桃（Hypericum perforatum）种子灌浆与发芽特性研究

贯叶金丝桃（Hypericum perforatum）是抗抑郁中药的基原植物,以有性繁殖为主,种子微小。为了揭示贯叶金丝桃种子发育规律,明确种子适宜采收期,以甘肃礼县栽培的2年生贯叶金丝桃为研究对象,于开花后第5天开始,每隔3 d测定种子粒重变化动态,并拟合Logistic曲线方程,最后测定各时期采收种子的发芽指标。结果表明：贯叶金丝桃种子灌浆持续期44 d,籽粒干质量变化符合Logistic生长曲线：开花后第5～11天为渐增期,第11～32天为快增期,第32～44天进入稳增期后略有下降。在灌浆过程中,种子鲜质量呈先升高后下降的动态变化趋势,在花后第32天达到最大值0.2697 g;灌浆速率和脱水速率呈波动趋势,种子干质量与平均灌浆速率、灌浆持续期呈极显著正相关,与含水量呈极显著负相关。种子发芽率和发芽指数在开花后44天达到最大,发芽势在开花后41天达到最大,发芽率、发芽势和发芽指数均与灌浆持续期呈极显著正相关,与含水量呈极显著负相关。以上说明甘肃礼县贯叶金丝桃繁种时以开花后44天左右（8月9日前后）为种子采收适宜期,过早采收和延迟采收均影响种子发芽质量。     

Reproductive traits,flowering phenology and seed bank dynamics in Retama raetam (Fabaceae) in a hyper-arid environment

This study explores the effects of year and location on reproductive traits and flowering phenology in Retama raetam populations growing in a hyper-arid environment. Besides year, season, and location, variations in the soil seed bank were also evaluated. Germination percentage of seeds buried in soil at two different depths for one year was determined. I hypothesized that changes in water availability between years and locations would lead to variations in reproductive traits, flowering phenology, and the seed bank of R. raetam. The study was conducted at a midstream and an upstream location during 2013 and 2014 in Wadi Rishrash in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Flower, fruit, and seed production were significantly higher in the midstream location than the upstream location and in 2014 than in 2013. Flowering onset and duration did not differ significantly between locations. Flowering occurred earlier in 2014 than in 2013 at both locations, and the flowering period was longer in 2014 than in 2013. The size of the seed bank was greater at the midstream than at the upstream location, and in summer than in spring season. Germination of seeds decreased with burial depth, but increased with burial duration. Larger individuals produced more seeds and flowered earlier than smaller plants. The size of plant was also positively correlated with flowering duration. The location and temporal variations in all these traits may be related to environmental differences between locations and differences in annual precipitation.     

Dormancy and viability of Phalaris minor seed in a rice–wheat cropping system

Seed placement, soil temperature and soil moisture content influenced the process of after-ripening in Phalaris minor seeds. Seeds of P. minor collected from the soil just after wheat harvesting exhibited higher germination than seeds from P. minor threshed directly. There was a pronounced impact of periodic inhabitation of seed into the soil on germination after its dispersal. Germination was strongly inhibited when the seed was kept in soil at more than field capacity (FC) or in water. Maximum germination of seed incubated in soil at FC occurred at 30°C while a temperature of 40°C favoured after-ripening of seed when mixed with dry soil or kept dry without any medium. Release from conditional dormancy was quicker in the seed retrieved from the soil kept at 20°C than at 10°C. Seed release from conditional dormancy and germination increased with a rise in temperature from 30 to 40°C when the seed was retrieved from incubation in soil at FC for 70 days. The seed kept immersed in water was least responsive to a rise in temperature. Seed recovered from dry soil, or kept without any medium, responded quickly at both temperatures. Light enhanced the germination of Phalaris minor seed. The seedbank subjected to rice (Oryza sativa) field management conditions lost vigour in comparison with the seed stored in laboratory. There was significant variability in seed viability when exposed to differential water management conditions in rice.     

Effect of environmental conditions on Alopecurus myosuroides germination. II. Effect of moisture conditions and storage length

Summary More effective control of Alopecurus myosuroides with a minimum amount of herbicide may be achievable by using models describing the impact of cropping system effects on the weed's demography. In order to develop the submodel relating the weed seedbank to the emerged seedlings, a series of laboratory experiments was set up to analyse and quangify the effects on A. myosuroides germination of length of seed storage in dry conditions, soil water potential and dryness during imbibition. The base soil water potential for germination was estimated at −1.5 MPa. A four-parameter non-linear equation depending on accumulated day–degrees was fitted to the observed germination data, resulting in the estimation of parameters illustrating germination proportion and rate. Germination proportion and rate increased with seed storage length, and were increased by short and decreased by long dry periods occurring after imbibition. These results showed that, in contrast to crop species, A. myosuroides germination cannot be expressed simply as a function of hydrothermal time, but also requires the determination of the proportion of non-dormant seeds as a function of seed age and environmental conditions.     

Induction of secondary dormancy in seeds of Barbarea stricta and B. vulgaris by chlormequat and daminozide, and its termination by gibberellic acid

Germination in the laboratory of seeds of Barbarea stricta and B. vulgaris was inhibited by 20–200 mg l^?1 chlormequat chloride or daminozide. Seeds treated with chlormequat and then washed with water and kept on moist quartz sand remained dormant for up to 1 year, but dormancy could be broken at any time by treatment with gibberellic acid. Similar results were obtained with Capsella bursa-pastoris and Thlaspi arvense. In contrast, germination of other weed species, such as Spergula arvensis and Matrkaria perforata, took place in the presence of chlormequat and daminozide in concentrations of 5000–10000 mg 1^?1. The relevance of the results to the duration of seed dormancy in the soil is discussed.     

The influence of temperature on germination of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.)

The germination of U. europaeus seed was investigated at temperatures between 4 and 40°C on a thermal gradient bar. At constant temperature the germination rate increased linearly with temperature from a minimum near 0°C to an optimum at 18°C and then decreased to a maximum at 26°C. At still higher temperatures seeds became imbibed but only germinated when transferred to cooler conditions. Above 35°C viability was lost. The rate of imbibition prior to germination increased with temperature over the whole range. Germination was not increased either by a light treatment or by potassium nitrate. Germination was not stimulated by a wide range of alternating temperature regimes and at mean temperatures below the optimum the germination rate could be adequately predicted from a formula based on performance at constant temperature. At higher temperatures the observed rates became progressively slower than predicted. Seeds from three different sources were tested, all showing similar relationships between germination rate and temperature but differing in the proportion of hard seed. The proportion was least with seed extracted from the soil, intermediate with a collection from the surface and greatest from pods. The findings are discussed in relation to germination in the field following clearing of gorse thicket.     

Fine‐tuned ability to predict future competitive environment in Ambrosia artemisiifolia seeds

Competition from native species is a key mechanism for biotic resistance to invasion. Accelerated germination to pre‐empt resources or delayed germination and induced dormancy until the next growing season are two alternative strategies for annual invasive plants to avoid the drawbacks of competition at the seed stage. In Ambrosia artemisiifolia, both of these tactics could theoretically increase its long‐term fitness. However, their relative importance has never been tested. We studied the germination pattern of A. artemisiifolia seeds in various competitive environments by experimentally modifying the life stage (seed, seedling, adult), density (low, high) and also the identity (intraspecific and 3 interspecific competitors) of neighbours in controlled conditions. When facing competition of seeds and seedlings at high densities or of particular identity, A. artemisiifolia accelerated its germination. In contrast, A. artemisiifolia followed a competition avoidance strategy in the presence of established adult heterospecific neighbours by delaying germination and reducing the germination fraction through induction of secondary dormancy. By testing the seedlings' performance in the same competition situations as those of seeds, we showed that the germination responses were beneficial in the case of heterospecific, but not of conspecific neighbours.     

Germination ecology of Leptochloa chinensis: a new weed in the Italian rice agro-environment

Leptochloa chinensis is a new weed that has been found with increasing frequency in Italian rice paddies. The germination ecology of L. chinensis seeds was studied in order to investigate the development mechanisms and survival strategy of this weed in rice paddies of northern Italy. Leptochloa chinensis seeds showed no dormancy and exhibited germination even in anoxic conditions. Germination was strongly influenced by temperature (minimum around 15°C; optimal 25–35°C) and light (phytochrome dependent). Temperature fluctuation caused an increase of seed germination in the dark. Seed burial also strongly inhibited germination and emergence of this species. At 5 cm seed burial only 5% of seedlings emerged in flooded conditions, while at the same depth, but with no flooding, no seedling emergence was observed. This phenomenon was not due to oxygen depletion, as germination was not inhibited by complete anoxia, as demonstrated by the fact that some seedlings did emerge in flooding conditions when water was no deeper than 6 cm. Seed burial and concomitant flooding induced an unusual germination: first coleoptile emergence and subsequently emergence of the radicle was observed. The possible exploitation of this knowledge for weed management is discussed.     

Field assessment of thermal after-ripening time for dormancy release prediction in Lolium rigidum seeds

Dormancy release was studied in four populations of annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) seeds to determine whether loss of dormancy in the field can be predicted from temperature alone or whether seed water content (WC) must also be considered. Freshly matured seeds were after‐ripened at the northern and southern extremes of the Western Australian cereal cropping region and at constant 37°C. Seed WC was allowed to fluctuate with prevailing humidity, but full hydration was avoided by excluding rainfall. Dormancy was measured regularly during after‐ripening by germinating seeds with 12‐hourly light or in darkness. Germination was lower in darkness than in light/dark and dormancy release was slower when germination was tested in darkness. Seeds were consistently drier, and dormancy release was slower, during after‐ripening at 37°C than under field conditions. However, within each population, the rate of dormancy release in the field (north and south) in terms of thermal time was unaffected by after‐ripening site. While low seed WC slowed dormancy release in seeds held at 37°C, dormancy release in seeds after‐ripened under Western Australian field conditions was adequately described by thermal after‐ripening time, without the need to account for changes in WC elicited by fluctuating environmental humidity.     

Production,size, and germination of broad‐leaved dock seeds collected from mother plants grown under different nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium supplies

Rumex obtusifolius is believed to be a nitrophilous weedy species that spreads mainly by seed. However, the effects of nutrient availability on seed production never have been investigated. In this study, how the amount of seed production per plant, the chemical composition of the seeds, and their size and germination are affected by the supply of N, P, and K was investigated. A pot fertilizer experiment with 10 treatments (combinations of 0, 150 [N1], and 300 [N2] kg N ha^?1, 0, 40 [P1], and 80 [P2] kg P ha^?1, and 0 and 100 [K] kg K ha^?1 applied twice per vegetation season) was carried out in Prague, Czech Republic, in 2008 and 2009. The seeds from plants that were cultivated since the spring were collected each August. The germination of the seeds was determined in long‐daylight conditions at a stable temperature of 20°C. The number of seeds per plant ranged from 0 in the P1 and P2 treatments and <200 in the control and K treatments to almost 9000 in the N2P2K treatment. The number of seeds per plant was positively correlated with the number of stems per plant and the number of seeds per stem. The relationship between the amount of seeds per plant and the individual seed weight was positive. The concentration of N, P, and K in the seeds was affected by the treatments. The weight of 1000 seeds ranged from 1.3 to 1.7 g. The seed length ranged from 2.11 to 2.34 mm and the seed width varied from 1.26 to 1.42 mm. With the exception of the control (with 94% germination), the amount of seed germination was >98% in all the other treatments in 2008. In 2009, the amount of seed germination was >95% in all the treatments, except N1 and N2, where 93% and 89% germination, respectively, was recorded. The germination rate was positively related to the P concentration in the seeds. The amount of time that was necessary for 50% seed germination ranged from 1.53 to 2.89 days and was not related to the N concentration in the seeds, but it was negatively related to the P and K concentrations. A balanced N, P, and K supply to the mother plant strongly affected the number of produced seeds and their chemical composition and germination ability.     

Germination of seeds from plants of Avenafatua L. treated with glyphosate

Glyphosate was applied at four rates under greenhouse conditions to Avena fatua L. plants at four stages of seed development. Application at anthesis completely prevented the formation of viable seeds. Application five days after anthesis (DAA) of the terminal floret of the panicle significantly reduced seed production at all herbi-cide rates used, and at 1.76 kg a.i. ha^-1 no viable seeds were produced. When applied 10 DAA, only the highest rate of glyphosate resulted in substantial reduction in number of primary seeds, but seed viability suffered at all herbicide levels. Glyphosate applied 15 DAA still produced a significant decrease in primary and secondary seed production and biomass. Both the viability and the germination rate of seeds from treated plants were significantly affected. When the herbicide was applied to plants 5 DAA, no viable seeds were produced by plants surviving the highest rate, and all rates significantly reduced germination. Glyphosate applied 10 DAA significantly suppressed germination, with 1.76 kg a.i. ha^-1 being the most effective rate. When applied to plants 15 DAA, only the highest rate of glyphosate significantly affected the overall germination of both primary and secondary seeds, but the normal imposition of dormancy was partially blocked in seeds from plants treated with 0.44 and 0.88 kg a.i. ha^-1. These findings are relevant to chemical summerfallow and crop desiccation practices.     

Maternal salinity improves yield,size and stress tolerance of Suaeda fruticosa seeds

Shrubby seablite or lani(Suaeda fruticosa Forssk)is a perennial euhalophyte with succulent leaves,which could be planted on arid-saline lands for restoration and cultivated as a non-conventional edible or cash crop.Knowledge about the impacts of maternal saline environment on seed attributes of this important euhalophyte is lacking.This study investigated the effects of maternal salinity on yield,size and stress tolerance of S.fruticosa seeds.Seedlings of S.fruticosa were grown in a green net house under increasing maternal salinity levels(0,300,600 and 900 mM NaCl)until seed production.Total yield,size,stress tolerance and germination of the descended seeds under different maternal saline conditions were examined.Plants grown under saline conditions(300,600 and 900 mM NaCl)produce a substantially higher quantity of seeds than plants grown under non-saline condition(0 mM NaCl).Low maternal salinity(300 mM NaCl)improves seed size.Seeds produced under all maternal salinity levels display a higher tolerance to low temperature(night/day thermoperiod of 10℃/20℃),whereas seeds produced under 300 mM NaCl maternal saline condition show a better tolerance to high temperature(night/day thermoperiod of 25℃/35℃)during germination.Seeds from all maternal saline conditions germinate better in the 12 h photoperiod(12 h light/12 h dark)than in the dark(24 h dark);however,seeds produced from low and moderate maternal saline conditions(300 and 600 mM NaCl)show a higher germination in the dark than those from control and high maternal saline conditions(0 and 900 mM NaCl).In general,maternal salinity is found to improve yield,size and stress tolerance of S.fruticosa seeds.