Standing laparoscopic-guided uterine biopsy in a southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum).

Transrectal ultrasonography of a 35-yr-old captive female southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) with a history of chronic mucohemorrhagic vulvar discharge revealed right transmural uterine horn enlargement. Abdominal laparoscopic surgery, although extremely difficult because of inadequate instrumentation, permitted uterine visualization and biopsy. Standing anesthesia, incorporating butorphanol and azaperone together with local anesthetic infiltration, facilitated the laparoscopy. A leiomyoma was suspected on the basis of history, physical examination, ultrasonographic appearance, and histopathology. Prior rhinoceros laparoscopies have failed, primarily from limitations imposed by recumbency.     

Vesiculobullous skin reaction temporally related to firocoxib treatment in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

A 40 yr-old female white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) suffered from chronic nail-bed abscesses. Due to worsening of clinical signs, the animal's nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory treatment was switched to firocoxib. Approximately 7 days after this change, the animal developed multifocal vesicles and bullae along the lateral aspects of the thorax and abdomen, the dorsum, and the proximal limbs. Cytology and culture did not identify an infectious etiology. Histologically, the lesions consisted of a severe, subacute vesiculobullous dermatitis with intraepidermal to subepidermal clefting with areas of individual keratinocyte necrosis and minor neutrophilic epidermal infiltrates. These findings are similar to those seen in some drug reactions in people; therefore an adverse drug reaction to the firocoxib was suspected.     

The relationship between vaginal electrical impedence and hormone profiles during pregnancy and parturition of a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum).

In this study, an attempt was made to use vaginal electrical impedance to predict calving in a female white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) and to determine the relationship between vaginal electrical impedance and hormonal profiles during pregnancy. The principle behind vaginal electrical impedance is that a change in the ionic balance of vaginal and cervical mucus occurs in response to changes in reproductive hormones. Three times weekly vaginal electrical impedance readings and fecal samples were collected from midgestation to calving (a 6-mo period). The extracted fecal samples were analyzed for immunoreactive estrogens, progestagens, and corticoids by RIA. Vaginal electrical impedance readings did not decrease before calving but remained consistent throughout the last 140 days of pregnancy. Fecal progestagens in the white rhinoceros decreased between day 17 and day 1 before calving, whereas estrogens increased between 4 and 2 mo before calving, with an additional increase occurring 1 mo before calving. Fecal corticoids increased 5 mo before calving, slowly declined, and increased again within 3 wk before calving. A decline in vaginal electrical impedance was noted 168 days before calving and remained at low levels for 4 wk. At the time of this decrease, the female became aggressive toward the male and began lactating. Fecal progestagens and estrogens did not change during this time; however, fecal corticoids increased as vaginal electrical impedance readings returned to normal along with her behavior and cessation of lactation. In summary, the use of vaginal electrical impedance could not predict parturition in the white rhinoceros. However, an anomaly occurred during pregnancy that was supported by vaginal electrical impedance readings, a change in female behavior, premature lactation, and a subsequent increase in fecal corticoids. The etiology of this physiological anomaly is unknown, yet it did not compromise pregnancy.     

Acute hepatic necrosis and death in a subadult southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) associated with exposure to sterigmatocystin in forage contaminated with Aspergillus nidulans

A young male southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), which was resident in a zoo as part of a multi‐rhinoceros group, died suddenly. Necropsy and histopathological findings supported a diagnosis of death from acute hepatic necrosis. The microscopic distribution of liver lesions was suggestive of hepatotoxicosis. Further investigation revealed potential exposure to a mycotoxin, sterigmatocystin, present in spoiled lucerne hay contaminated with Aspergillus nidulans. It was concluded that mycotoxicosis was the likely cause of the hepatic necrosis and death in this animal.     

Neosporosis in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) calf

A 16-day-old white rhinoceros calf died suddenly while in excellent condition and showing no obvious previous clinical signs. It was the 9th calf of a mature female kept free-ranging with 11 other rhinoceros as well as various other game species on a 2000 hectare game breeding centre adjacent to the town of Lichtenburg and outlying cattle farmlands in the Northern Province. At post mortem examination, death was ascribed to heart failure. There was marked multifocal to coalescing subacute parasitic myocarditis with numerous protozoan bradyzoite cysts and free tachyzoites present amongst the predominantly round cell inflammatory infiltrate. The coccidian was positively identified as Neospora sp. using both polyclonal and murine monoclonal Neospora caninum antibody immunohistochemistry in the avidin-biotin technique. The parasites stained poorly with Toxoplasma gondii-specific immunoperoxidase staining. Ultrastructurally, a section of a bradyzoite-containing cyst, as well as tachyzoites, were largely but not totally consistent with those described for Neospora caninum. The dam showed no sign of illness. Neosporosis affecting white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) has not previously been reported. A summarised overview of neosporosis from selected publications and a recent review is given.     

Pheochromocytoma in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

A 46-yr-old male white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) died during anesthesia following agonal excitation. On postmortem, a well-demarcated 2.5-cm tan mass was identified in the right adrenal gland. Histopathology confirmed the presence of a pheochromocytoma, and elevated levels of epinephrine in serum collected shortly prior to the animal's death, as compared with sera from healthy controls, demonstrated the functional nature of the tumor. Although rare, pheochromocytoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of suspected hypertension and acute death in rhinos.     

Cloning, sequencing and expression of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and the production of rhinoceros IFN-gamma specific antibodies

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is endemic in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park (KNP). In addition to buffalo, Mycobacterium bovis has been found in at least 14 other mammalian species in South Africa, including kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) and lion (Panthera leo). This has raised concern about the spillover into other potentially susceptible species like rhinoceros, thus jeopardising breeding and relocation projects aiming at the conservation of biodiversity. Hence, procedures to screen for and diagnose BTB in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) need to be in place. The Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) assay is used as a routine diagnostic tool to determine infection of cattle and recently African buffalo, with M. bovis and other mycobacteria. The aim of the present work was to develop reagents to set up a rhinoceros IFN-gamma (RhIFN-gamma) assay. The white rhinoceros IFN-gamma gene was cloned, sequenced and expressed as a mature protein. Amino acid (aa) sequence analysis revealed that RhIFN-gamma shares a homology of 90% with equine IFN-gamma. Monoclonal antibodies, as well as polyclonal chicken antibodies (Yolk Immunoglobulin-IgY) with specificity for recombinant RhIFN-gamma were produced. Using the monoclonals as capture antibodies and the polyclonal IgY for detection, it was shown that recombinant as well as native white rhinoceros IFN-gamma was recognised. This preliminary IFN-gamma enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), has the potential to be developed into a diagnostic assay for M. bovis infection in rhinoceros.     

Butorphanol and azaperone as a safe alternative for repeated chemical restraint in captive white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum).

Anesthesia in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) has routinely involved potent narcotic anesthetic agents such as etorphine or carfentanil with their associated adverse side effects. In captive rhinoceroses conditioned to routine handling, a combination of butorphanol and azaperone at mean (+/- SD) doses of 69.3 +/- 18.0 mg and 103.1 +/- 20.9 mg, respectively, was used to produce levels of neuroleptanalgesia ranging from light "standing" sedation to deeper planes of anesthesia producing sternal and lateral recumbency. This combination was used for repeated (minimum repeat frequency of 3 days between events) anesthetic episodes (n = 26) in two animals, with the remaining episode performed in a white rhinoceros with chronic renal disease. The action of butorphanol was satisfactorily reversed with naltrexone (125 mg i.v. and 125 mg i.m.). Results (mean +/- SD) include sternal recumbency achieved in 14.1 +/- 8.1 min after i.m. dosing, standing and ambulation occurred in 1.7 +/- 0.6 min after reversal, heart rate was 62.0 +/- 10.1 beats/min, respiratory rate was 14.7 +/- 5.6 breaths/min, and percentage of oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (Spo2) was 89.2 +/- 3.0%. Without supplementation, the total elapsed time ranged from 44.9 min to 103.0 min, whereas elapsed times up to 214.3 min were achieved with supplementation (mean time to supplementation was 28.0 +/- 13.9 min after initial dosing). Butorphanol and azaperone produced adequate muscle relaxation and apparently adequate analgesia for minor surgical interferences, including abdominal laparoscopy. Respiratory rates and Spo2 measurements were improved compared with reports of using more potent opioids in this species.     

人工饲养条件下非洲白犀牛的饲养与繁殖

为了对非洲白犀牛进行有效的饲养与繁殖管理,在浙江省杭州野生动物世界对非洲白犀牛的饲养情况进行了说明。此外,还对白犀牛的繁殖分娩行为作了介绍,这也是我国人工饲养条件下,白犀牛成功繁殖后代的首例。本文通过揭示亚成体犀牛生长发育到成体犀牛并交配、繁殖、分娩的过程,同时对习性进行了记录整理,供同行参考。     

Ultrasonographic monitoring of artificially stimulated ejaculation in three rhinoceros species (Ceratotherium simum, Diceros bicornis, Rhinoceros unicornus).

Manual massage of the penis and rectal electroejaculation methods have been minimally effective for collecting semen from the rhinoceros. These two methods for stimulating ejaculation were evaluated by rectal ultrasonography. One individual each of three rhinoceros species (Ceratotherium simum simum, Rhinoceros unicornis and Diceros bicornis) was stimulated by manual massage of the penis and two black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) were electroejaculated. On ultrasonography, neither manual massage nor rectal electroejaculation affected the accessory glands. The pelvic urethra remained empty during manual massage of unconditioned animals; however, this area was filled before commencement of massage of conditioned animals. The pelvic urethra also filled during electroejaculation. Semen accumulated in the pelvic urethra during pauses between electrical stimulations and was moved distally into the penile urethra by rectal and penile massage. The volumes of seminal fluid recovered from electroejaculation in this study exceeded previously reported attempts. This study demonstrated the potential of transrectal imaging for improving the recovery of semen by these methods.     

Serosurvey for selected viral agents in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in Kruger National Park, 2007

One hundred serum samples collected from free-ranging white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in Kruger National Park (KNP) during the 2007 capture season were selected for measurement of antibody levels to several different vector-borne viral agents. These infectious diseases were chosen to compare with an earlier serosurvey that had been conducted in KNP in rhinos during 1987-1997. Positive antibody titers were found against epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) of deer (8%), Bluetongue (BT) (1%), and Rift Valley fever (RVF) (49%). However, none of the 100 animals tested had detected antibody levels to African horse sickness (AHS). These values were in sharp contrast to those measured in the 1987-1997 survey in KNP white rhinos (AHS 60%, EHD 30%, BT 37%, RVF 0%). Vector-borne viral infection prevalence in white rhinos in the same geographical location appears to vary over time and may be important for monitoring presence of pathogens in an ecosystem.     

Morphology of the intestinal tract in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

The intestinal tract of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simun) was dissected. We observed a simple structure for the small intestine, duodenum, jejunum and ileum, and a well-developed large intestine, cecum, colon and rectus. The cecum consisted of a small chamber, whereas the colon was much enlarged; notably larger than that of the domesticated horse, which belongs to the same order, Perissodactyla. This suggests that in the white rhinoceros the cecum may be functionally replaced by the well-developed colon which may act as the main fermentation tank in this animal.     

Capture of the White (Square-Lipped) Rhinoceros Ceratotherium Simum Simum (Burchell) with the Use of Drug Immobilization Technique

The capture of the white (square-lipped) rhinoceros ceratotherium simum simum (Burchell) by the drug immobilization method is described. Details are given of the drug doses and the reactions of the twelve animals immobilized.     

Semen collection in rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis, Diceros bicornis, Ceratotherium simum) by electroejaculation with a uniquely designed probe.

Electroejaculation in rhinoceroses has historically yielded inconsistent results, with the collection of high-quality, sperm-rich samples rare. The goal of this study was to develop a reliable method of electroejaculation in the rhinoceros by designing a rectal probe that appropriately fits the anatomy of this taxon and refining the procedure. A curved probe handle ending in an oblate, ellipsoid head was built using readily available supplies. A combination of rectal massage, penile massage, and electrical stimulation with a specially designed probe was employed in attempts to collect semen on 14 occasions from greater one-horned rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis; n = 4), black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis; n = 2) and a southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum; n = 1). During 13 of the 14 attempts, ejaculates were collected in multiple fractions. All but one of the ejaculates contained spermatozoa, and seven ejaculates contained good-quality fractions of semen (-60% sperm motility; > or =20 x 106 spermatozoa/ml) suitable for sperm banking and assisted reproduction procedures. Mean (+/-SEM) values for volume, pH, osmolality, and total sperm number for ejaculates containing good-quality fractions (98.2 +/-21.8 ml, 8.5+/-0.1, 290.4+/-6.7 mOsm, and 37.1+/-12.0 x 10(9), respectively) did not differ (P > 0.05) from those containing only poor-quality samples. Urine and/or erythrocyte contamination was not uncommon in fractions of both ejaculate types. Males producing good-quality samples ranged in age from 7 to 34 yr. None of the samples contained > or =75% morphologically normal spermatozoa. Electroejaculation with a uniquely designed probe consistently produced ejaculates in the rhinoceros. However, the production of high-quality samples continued to be challenging, occurring in only 50% of collection attempts. Regardless, the technology has progressed to a stage at which good-quality semen samples can be produced for sperm banking and assisted reproduction, and thereby can be integrated into intensive rhinoceros management strategies for the ultimate survival of this taxon.     

A study of the pharmacokinetics and thromboxane inhibitory activity of a single intramuscular dose of carprofen as a means to establish its potential use as an analgesic drug in white rhinoceros

The alleviation of pain and prevention of suffering are key aspects of animal welfare. Unfortunately, analgesic drugs are not available for all species. White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum ), representing one of such species, which survive poaching attempts inflicted with severe facial injuries and gunshot wounds, nonetheless require analgesic support. To improve treatment conditions, this study explored the use of carprofen for the treatment of pain and inflammation in white rhinoceros. The pharmacokinetics of 1 mg/kg intramuscular carprofen was evaluated in six healthy white rhinoceros. The half‐life of λ_z and mean residence time was 105.71 ± 15.67 and 155.01 ± 22.46 hr, respectively. The area under the curve and the maximum carprofen concentration were 904.61 ± 110.78 μg ml^?1 hr^?1 and 5.77 ± 0.63 μg/ml, respectively. Plasma TXB ₂ inhibition demonstrated anti‐inflammatory properties and indicated that carprofen may be effective for a minimum of 48 hr in most animals. With its long half‐life further indicating that a single dose could be effective for several days, we suggest that carprofen may be a useful drug for the treatment of white rhinoceros.     

Treatment of patent urachus associated with a congenital imperforate urethra in a calf

Patent urachus is a common condition in calves which is frequently associated with omphalitis. A membranous urethral diaphragm prevented closure of the urachus in a female calf. The patent urachus was complicated by an ascending infection of the intraabdominal umbilical remnants. Following surgical removal of the urachus and umbilical vessels along with transection of the membranous diaphragm the calf experienced an uncomplicated recovery. This case stresses the importance of assuring urethral patency when managing a case of patent urachus.     

Reference cardiopulmonary physiologic parameters for standing, unrestrained white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum).

Chemical restraint is an important tool for the management and medical care of both captive and free-ranging rhinoceroses. Current anesthetic protocols for the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are reported to cause varying degrees of hypertension, tachycardia, muscular stiffness and fasciculation, acidosis, and, most importantly, respiratory depression with resulting hypoventilation, hypoxia, and hypercapnea. To assist in the assessment and development of new and improved anesthetic techniques for the white rhinoceros, the following cardiopulmonary reference parameters for standing, unrestrained white rhinoceroses were generated (mean +/- standard error [minimum maximum]): heart rate = 39 +/- 0.8 beats/min (32-42), respiratory rate = 19 +/- 0.6 breaths/min (16-23), corrected indirect systolic blood pressure = 160 +/- 2.9 mm Hg (146-183), corrected indirect diastolic blood pressure = 104 +/- 2.3 mm Hg (88-117), corrected indirect mean blood pressure = 124 +/- 2.2 mm Hg (108-135), end tidal CO2 = 45.1 +/- 0.7 mm Hg (41.7-48.0), rectal temperature = 36.8 +/- 0.1 degrees C (36.6-37.2), arterial blood pH = 7.391 +/- 0.007 (7.346-7.431), arterial partial pressure of oxygen = 98.2 +/- 1.4 mm Hg (90.2-108.6), arterial partial pressure of CO2 = 49.0 +/- 0.9 mm Hg (44.4-53.7), base excess = 3.5 +/- 0.4 mmol/L (1.9-5.9), bicarbonate = 29.3 +/- 0.4 mmol/L (27.3-32.2), and arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SaO2) = 97.2 +/- 0.1% (96.6-98.0).     

Digestion coefficients achieved by the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), a large browsing hindgut fermenter

In contrast to the grazing white (C. simum) and Indian (R. unicornis) rhinoceros, the black rhinoceros (D. bicornis) is an exclusive browser. Due to the particular fermentation characteristics of browse, one would expect browsers to display both shorter ingesta retention times and lower digestion coefficients on comparable diets than grazers. In order to generate a database to test this hypothesis, we performed digestibility studies in eight black rhinoceroses (D. bicornis) from three zoological institutions, using total faecal collection for the quantification of faecal output. One to three regularly fed zoo rations of roughage, concentrates and varying proportions of browse material were used per animal. Additional data was taken from three hitherto unpublished studies as well as several published sources. When compared with horses on similar rations, black rhinoceroses achieved lower digestion coefficients for organic matter and CF. In general, an increase in dietary CF content led to a steeper decrease in organic matter and GE digestibility in black rhinoceroses than in horses. When comparing available data for rhinoceroses, browsing species showed a steeper decrease in organic matter digestibility than grazing species with increasing dietary cell wall content. Endogenous losses as determined by linear regression analysis were within the range reported for horses and Indian rhinoceroses. The results suggest that the horse is not a useful model animal for evaluating diets for black rhinoceroses energetically. In general, diets fed to captive black rhinoceroses seem to include higher proportions of concentrates than diets for other rhinoceros species, and an increase in browse or roughage would reduce digestion coefficients to levels observed in animals fed natural forage.     

Anesthetic management of a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) undergoing an emergency exploratory celiotomy for colic

ObservationsA 26-year-old male white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), weighing approximately 2000 kg was anesthetized for an exploratory celiotomy. Sedation was achieved with intramuscular butorphanol (0.04 mg kg^?1) and detomidine (0.025 mg kg^?1) and induction of anesthesia with intravenous glyceryl guaiacolate (50 g) and three intravenous boluses of ketamine (200 mg, each); the trachea was then intubated and anesthesia maintained with isoflurane in oxygen using a circle breathing system. Positioning in dorsal recumbency for the surgery and later in sternal recumbency for the recovery represented challenges that added to the prolonged anesthesia time and surgical approach to partially correct an impaction. The rhinoceros recovered uneventfully after 10.4 hours of recumbency.ConclusionsAnesthetic management for an exploratory celiotomy with a midline approach is possible in rhinoceroses, although planning and extensive staff support is necessary to adequately position the patient.