Effects of land use and landscape on spatial distribution and morphological features of gullies in an agropastoral area in Sardinia (Italy)

According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), soil erosion is one of the main causes of desertification in the Northern Mediterranean. Recently, the role of channelled erosion in sediment delivery has been underlined by several studies. The aim of this paper is to describe a simplified experimental methodology settled up for studying the relationships between gully erosion and land use.The experimental site, which is wide about 720 ha, is located in a hilly area threatened by desertification in Central Eastern Sardinia (Italy). This area is characterised by irregular morphology with steep slopes, where agropastoral activities, particularly tillage with heavy machinery and overgrazing, are causing severe soil erosion and compromising agricultural productivity. Previous studies carried out in the same area highlighted the need to quantify and monitor soil erosion in order to outline management guidelines for farmers. In this study, an integrated methodology that uses aerial photographs and field surveys was applied to inventory the gullies of the area. The degree of activity and morphological characteristics of gullies were assessed in the field by measuring the position and shape of gully heads, and their width and depth. Total gully volume was also estimated. Relationships among distribution, density and morphological characteristics of gullies, and geomorphological features, land use and land use historical dynamics of the area have been studied. The results show the very significant impact of agricultural activities on gully activity and density.     

土壤理化及力学性质对干热河谷台地边坡沟蚀发育的影响

金沙江干热河谷土地整理台地边坡沟蚀发育严重,水土流失强烈,高投入的土地整理工程效益难以发挥,严重威胁着该区的生态安全和社会经济发展。为查明干热河谷土地整理台地边坡沟蚀发育关键影响因子、防治台地边坡沟蚀发育,该研究采用野外实地测量法和实验室测定的方法,研究了干热河谷土地整理台地边坡的沟蚀发育形态特征,系统分析了土壤理化性质和力学性质对台地边坡沟蚀发育形态特征的影响。结果表明:1)非毛管孔隙度是影响台地边坡沟蚀发育形态特征的主要指标,但非毛管孔隙度对台地边坡沟蚀发育宽度、深度、截面积、密度以及割裂度的影响形式和影响程度有较大差异。2)抗剪强度仅对台地边坡沟道深度和截面积影响显著,而对沟道宽度、密度和割裂度的影响甚微。3)分散率对台地边坡沟道宽度和割裂度的影响较为明显,对沟道深度、截面积和密度无显著影响。4)沟道宽度和密度均主要受非毛管孔隙度控制,割裂度受分散率的影响最大,但沟道深度和沟道截面积受土壤性质的影响相对较弱。     

Geomorphological investigation on gully erosion in the Rift Valley and the northern highlands of Ethiopia

Gully erosion phenomena are very common in Ethiopia. They affect large areas with different morphological, pedological and climatic characteristics. The amount of soil loss due to gullying has become a very serious problem in the recent decades as it was associated to remarkable depletion of cultivated land. Field investigations on gully morphology and its genetic processes were carried out in two study areas of Ethiopia, representative of different geo-environmental conditions: the Lakes Region in the Rift portion north of Shashamene and the area surrounding the town of Mekele in Tigray.Two main types of gullies were identified on the basis of their morphological and hydraulic geometry characteristics: (1) discontinuous gullies which generally develop on low gradient slopes (1–5° on average) and the hydraulic radius of which increases from an upstream minimum to a maximum, at approximately their mid length, and decreases again to a relative minimum at their downstream end; and (2) stream gullies, formed by deep erosion processes typically migrating upslope. In order to investigate the main causes originating the different types of gullies, shear stress data were collected in the field from their hydraulic geometry. Hypotheses on the mechanisms responsible for both discontinuous and stream gullies development and for their different characteristics are discussed considering the pattern of shear stress variation in the downstream direction.     

东北典型黑土区侵蚀沟形态及分布特征

东北黑土区是中国最重要的粮食生产基地之一,同时也是中国四大水蚀区之一,其中沟道侵蚀是水蚀发生的主要形式,掌握东北黑土区沟道侵蚀的基本情况,剖析其形态及分布特征,对于分析东北黑土区沟道侵蚀的成因及水土流失治理至关重要。该研究以典型黑土区嫩江县为研究区域,利用航空遥感影像及1∶5万DEM对区域内侵蚀沟进行普查统计,并分析侵蚀沟的沟宽、沟长、纵比降等形态特征,以及海拔、坡度、坡向等地形因素对侵蚀沟分布的影响,为黑土区侵蚀沟的治理提供理论依据。研究结果表明:1)沟道侵蚀主要分布在丘陵区,沟道类型以切沟为主,冲沟影响面积仅次于切沟,研究区以小于500 m的侵蚀沟为主,数量及面积分别占总数的96.67%、61.99%;2)侵蚀沟的沟宽与沟长为正相关,纵比降与沟宽、沟长为负相关;3)坡向对各类型侵蚀沟的分布影响较小,坡度对侵蚀沟的分布有一定影响,细沟和浅沟主要分布在2~6°和6~15°的坡面上,而切沟和冲沟则主要分布在0~2°、2~6°的坡面上,90%以上的细沟和浅沟、80%以上的切沟、冲沟发生在耕地上;4)嫩江县冲沟地形阈值模型拟合表明嫩江县冲沟发生的临界坡度较小,较小的坡度就能对坡面形成冲刷,出现冲沟的发生发育,而模型中主导径流过程的参数数值较小,表明嫩江县冲沟的产生可能受到地下过程的影响。     

1970－2021年典型黑土区侵蚀沟损毁耕地速度与发育阶段

黑土区侵蚀沟损毁耕地,威胁粮食生产,研究侵蚀沟发展速度与发育现状,对揭示侵蚀沟发育机理和保护黑土地具有重要意义。为研究近50年侵蚀沟损毁耕地速度和发育特征,分别在典型黑土区3个纬度带选取坡度约为1%、2%和3%的9个共计约378 km²的典型黑土农田单元,并利用1970年、2011年和2021年卫星影像结合无人机和地面测量的结果进行计算与统计。结果表明,侵蚀沟数量在3个历史时期持续增加,剔除因治理而消失的311条,实际增加了958条,北部嫩江增加速度高于中部海伦和南部巴彦,而同一纬度区大坡度（3%）比小坡度（1%和2%）农田单元内侵蚀沟数量增长更快。人为治理和更高强度耕种导致侵蚀沟面积降低（1970－2011年）然后再增加（2011－2021年）的V型走势,但由侵蚀沟发育而实际损毁耕地的面积持续扩张,近10年年均损毁耕地面积0.1%,3个区域的损毁速度相近。从南往北3个区域侵蚀沟起始发育时间分别是1920s、1940s和1950s,与开垦时间先后顺序一致。典型黑土区侵蚀沟经历了谷底沟发育、沟系形成、多样化发育3个阶段,其中嫩江处在第二阶段,而海伦和巴彦处在第三阶段,即老沟、新沟、次生沟、浅沟多样化发育阶段。人为治理和促进侵蚀沟发育的较量,决定典型黑土区侵蚀沟的发育走势。研究为典型黑土区侵蚀沟防治提供科学依据。     

基于历史卫星影像估算黄土丘陵区冲沟发育速率

沟谷侵蚀是黄土高原河流泥沙的主要来源,对土地资源的破坏性极大.为评估黄土高原丘陵沟壑区冲沟的中长期发育速率,该研究选取黄土高原丘陵区第一副区绥德县枣林坪流域为研究区,使用1968年的KH-4B卫星影像、2021年高分7号卫星影像及立体像对,估算近53年来冲沟的发育速率,探究冲沟体积-面积关系.结果表明:1)在35条调查...     

Morphological Similarity of Channels: From Linear Erosional Features (Rill,Gully) to Alpine Rivers

The geometric characteristics of incised features such as channels, rills, ephemeral gully, gully, represent the erosional transport regime and the fluvial dynamic equilibrium, and thus it is critical for the understanding of the long‐term evolution of natural, agricultural, and anthropogenic landscapes. This paper examines the morphological similarity of channelized erosion in two different environments such as Alpine landscapes and cultivated hillslopes. The first dataset comprises six rivers in the Italian Alps, three in the Carnia region and three in the Dolomites, where erosion is mainly the effect of discharges with high sediment loads or landslides and debris flows. The agricultural areas dataset includes rills, ephemeral gullies, and gullies surveyed in literature. This research highlights that the eroded volume in Alpine rivers is in line with that of agricultural landscapes or badlands around the world. Dolomites rivers of colluvial origin, flowing on soils that are not particularly deep and subject to natural disaggregation, tend to behave similarly to ephemeral gullies. Contrarily, channels that exhibit evident alluvial morphologies and coarse grain sizes are more similar to gully erosion. At different spatial scales, the results demonstrated that length–volume equations calibrated on rills, ephemeral gullies, gullies and badlands, might be feasible also for Alpine channels. The research areas present soils and bedrock lithology that differs from those in literature, thus suggesting that the morphology of linear erosion is independent of the intrinsic soil characteristics. Differences emerged between Dolomites and Carnia rivers: this highlights the importance of taking into account in future analyses other forcing factors (e.g. climate) on land degradation processes. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estimating the rate and consequences of gully development,a case study of umbulo catchment in Southern Ethiopia

In southern Ethiopia wide and deep gullies are common features, significantly affecting farmers' livelihoods. Little action is being taken to address the problem despite farmers being knowledgeable about erosion and its control measures. A study was conduced to investigate the nature and rate of gully development in Umbulo catchment, southern Ethiopia, based on interviews with farmers and field measurements. The results indicated a rapid, down slope development of gullies over the last 30 years with average rate of soil loss from 11 to 30 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. The critical period of development of the gully system was estimated to be between 1974 and 1985, but since then the gully system has enlarged both in depth and width. Wide channels with deep, nearly vertical walls are typical. The trigger for gully initiation is believed to have been human, but the soil properties may have played an important role. Under the current situation agricultural production is unsustainable unless the gullies are controlled using integrated measures at the catchment scale. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

西藏中南部侵蚀沟形态无人机航测与传统地面测量的对比分析

[目的]分析无人机和传统地面方法测量侵蚀沟形态的差异,研究无人机影像提取西藏地区侵蚀沟形态的适宜性,以期准确、快速获取西藏地区沟蚀参数,为该地侵蚀沟快速调查与防治提供基础资料。[方法]选取6个研究地点20条侵蚀沟,对实地测量与无人机正射影像提取的沟长、沟宽进行对比分析。[结果]与实地测量相比,影像提取侵蚀沟沟长的平均偏差集中在2%～5%;沟宽的平均偏差集中在0～40%,其中实测沟宽范围在400～1 000 cm时,提取值和实测值的偏离程度最低。在6个研究地点中,影像提取值的偏离程度和侵蚀沟所处位置没有明显的关系。沟缘土质、沟缘线附近的植被及放牧对沟缘的踩踏是影响侵蚀沟形态提取的主要因素。[结论]无人机遥感可为西藏地区沟蚀监测提供便捷、可靠的数据源。     

坑状浅沟侵蚀研究

坑状浅沟作为浅沟与切沟的中间过程，深入理解它对于进一步认识切沟侵蚀规律具有十分重要的意义，但是还没有见到相关的研究报道。以内蒙古高原的一个小流域为例。利用高精度的全球定位系统（GPS）测量坑状浅沟侵蚀的形态参数，探讨了坑状浅沟的相关特征，分析了坑状浅沟的坡度（S）和上有集水区面积（A）的关系（S—A）、侵蚀体积（V）和长度（L）的关系（V-L），以期能推动坑状浅沟侵蚀的研究。     

黄土高原沟壑丘陵区沟道侵蚀与洞穴侵蚀特征

[目的]通过对黄土高原沟壑丘陵区内的沟道侵蚀和洞穴侵蚀进行特征分析,为该地区开展水土保持工作提供数据支持和决策依据。[方法]以王家沟流域为研究对象,通过资料收集、卫星影像识别和现场调查等方法对流域内沟道侵蚀和洞穴侵蚀状况进行分析。[结果](1)流域内共分布718条沟道和948个洞穴。(2)根据空间位置和地形特点将所有沟道分为冲沟、切沟、干沟、河沟。这4类沟道由于受土壤岩性组成、坡度及人为活动等因素影响,空间分布存在巨大差异。(3)43%的洞穴分布在冲沟中,51%分布在切沟中,6%分布在干沟中。河沟中没有洞穴存在。冲沟和切沟是洞穴形成和发育的主要区域。(4)洞穴沟道的沟长、面积、切深、产流及产沙量都明显大于非洞穴沟道。[结论]在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区,洞穴侵蚀是土壤侵蚀的重要组成部分,并对沟道的发育和扩展起着至关重要的作用。     

Development of badlands and gullies in the Sneeuberg, Great Karoo, South Africa

The study aims to examine the origin and development of land degradation with particular emphasis on badland and gully systems in the Sneeuberg uplands of the Great Karoo. This is an area of semiarid extensive stock farming where land degradation in the form of rill and gully erosion has accompanied the replacement of grassland by shrub vegetation. Species diversity has declined and ground cover has been reduced, leading to a positive feedback loop which exacerbates the degradation. Many foot slopes developed in shales, clays and colluvium have extensive, incipient badland development with closely spaced gullying up to 1.5 m deep. In valley-bottom and valley-side depression locations gullies up to 8 m deep have developed, usually cut to bedrock through valley fills of mainly Holocene colluvium. Both badlands and gullies appear to have developed since European settlement and to be part of the same hydrological system with extensive areas of bare ground (badlands) feeding water to incising gullies. Experiments using simulated rainfall throw some light on current processes. Badland areas are active under high-frequency, low-magnitude rainfall events. Major gullies are likely to be the result of occasional, high-magnitude events, but these have not been observed. Overgrazing in the past is the most likely cause of the degradation.     

Characteristics and factors controlling the development of ephemeral gullies in cultivated catchments of black soil region, Northeast China

Ephemeral gully erosion is an important process in the black soil region, Northeast China and can be responsible for severe damage to agricultural lands. However, little research on gully formation in this area has been published. The study described in this paper attempted to quantify soil losses, the spatial distribution and morphology of the gullies, and the factors that control their development. Ephemeral gullies were measured in spring and summer of 2005 in two small catchments. The critical periods for ephemeral gully formation were late spring and summer in the study area. Mean soil losses due to ephemeral gully erosion were 0.40 and 0.43 kg m⁻² year⁻¹ for only croplands despite low slope gradients, and this loss is above the tolerable erosion rates of 0.20 kg m⁻² year⁻¹. The erosion rates were greater in spring because the topsoil thawed before deeper layers, reducing infiltration into the soil, and the bare vegetation cover provided no barriers to surface flow. In contrast, summer erosion occurred primarily in response to intense rain events. Development of the gullies was promoted by freeze-thaw cycles in spring and was affected by the type of agricultural operations and crops in summer. A linear regression model for the prediction of ephemeral gully length at the catchment level was established using field data, and although it did not successfully predict the length of individual gullies, it explained 55% of the variation in ephemeral gully length.     

切沟形态特征无人机倾斜摄影测量

切沟是坡面土壤侵蚀最剧烈表现形式，其形态特征刻画的精确性与适用性，对切沟的调查、研究与防治具有重大意义。该研究选取黄土丘陵区小流域4个地点10条切沟共82个断面，利用地面测量验证携带多频全球导航卫星系统且内置实时差分定位技术（Global Navigation Satellite System and Real-Time Kinematic，GNSS RTK）的无人机倾斜摄影测量提取的沟长、沟宽、沟深指标的精确性并建立体积估算模型探讨沟长的测定方法。结果表明：1）与地面测量相比，沟长、沟宽的偏离度（Deviation Extent，DE）均值不大于3.70%，精度较高；沟深的DE均值不小于25.49%，误差较高。2）切沟体积与沟长之间有显著的幂函数关系，沟长选取沟头至沟口的最大汇水线长度时拟合效果最好，沟道中心线长度次之，直线长度拟合效果最差。因此，在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区，运用无人机倾斜摄影测量方法测量切沟沟长、沟宽指标具有高度可行性，在精度要求较高的沟深测量方面的应用还有一定的局限性。此外，由于野外测量的局限性，直线长度较最大汇水线长度的测量更简单便捷，当坡度小于18.2°时，测量直线距离作为切沟沟长可行。     

Study of ephemeral gully erosion in a small upland catchment on the Inner-Mongolian Plateau

Ephemeral gully erosion is an important soil erosion process on the Inner-Mongolia Plateau in North China, and although its damage is very intense, little research on the area has been published. In this paper, a global positioning system (GPS) is used to measure the morphology of ephemeral gullies in a small catchment, the Inner-Mongolia Autonomous Region. First, this paper presents the characteristics of ephemeral gullies and soil loss due to ephemeral gully erosion. The network of ephemeral gullies takes on the shapes of tree branches, and there are 16 hole-ephemeral gullies in the middle of the ephemeral gullies. An average gully length of about 19.6 m ha⁻¹ and an average soil loss of 8.8 m³ ha⁻¹ due to ephemeral gully erosion were measured. Second, soil erosion influences crop production in cropland and combinations of vegetation in fallow. The difference between vegetation in the middle of ephemeral gullies and in other places is very obvious. Third, this paper discusses hole-ephemeral gullies that are holes locating in the middle of ephemeral gullies whose widths and depths are more than 0.5 m (Fig. 6) for the first time. The relationship between local hill slope gradient S (m m⁻¹) and upslope contributing area A (ha) can be expressed as S = 0.064A^−0.375 and may be a key indicator for determining the position of existing hole-ephemeral gully heads and for predicting where hole-ephemeral gullies could form in the small watershed on the Inner-Mongolian Plateau.     

半干旱黄土丘陵沟壑区沟道侵蚀特征研究

利用遥感、地理信息技术和数理统计方法,选择山西省吕梁市王家沟流域为典型区域,系统分析了半干旱黄土丘陵沟壑区沟道侵蚀特征。研究结果表明:在王家沟流域内共有沟道718条,其中冲沟109条,切沟286条,干沟302条及河沟21条。这4类沟道的发育特征和空间分布特征存在巨大差异;沟道侵蚀是王家沟流域内土壤侵蚀的主要形式,沟道侵蚀面积占总侵蚀面积的56.19%;流域内不同坡度范围内土壤侵蚀强度与沟道类型存在紧密联系。同时,人为因素也对黄土丘陵沟壑区的沟道侵蚀具有重要的影响。     

天山北坡典型小流域侵蚀沟形态特征及其成因

[目的]揭示天山北坡典型小流域侵蚀沟发育规律,为侵蚀沟的预警及防治提供科学依据。[方法]选取天山北坡典型小流域10条侵蚀沟进行分析,采用野外实地调查与地理信息技术相结合的方法,对研究区侵蚀沟形态发育特征及其成因进行分析。[结果](1)研究区侵蚀沟特征值之间存在着一定的相关关系:横截面积与平均沟宽、平均沟深呈极显著正相关;沟壑面积与沟长呈显著正相关;沟壑体积与横截面积、沟壑面积呈极显著正相关关系,与平均沟宽、平均沟深呈显著正相关关系;沟长、平均沟宽、平均沟深相互之间无明显的相关关系,汇水面积与特征值之间也无明显的相关关系。(2)研究区侵蚀沟均是开析型侵蚀沟和弱度割裂型侵蚀沟。(3)研究区侵蚀沟密度与坡度呈正相关关系,坡度越大,密度越大;侵蚀沟密度与沟长无相关关系,侵蚀沟密度随沟长的增加呈先增加后减小的趋势;研究区典型侵蚀沟密度在南坡最大,西坡和西南坡的密度相对较小。[结论]坡度和坡向是影响小流域尺度侵蚀沟发育的重要地形因素。     

Rill and gully development during an extreme winter runoff event in Norway

Erosion on agricultural fields in Norway has earlier been reported to be mainly sheet and minor rill erosion. Exceptional rainfall events during January and February (230% of 30 years monthly mean) in 1990 led to extreme runoff and widespread erosion also on areas normally not considered to have a high erosion risk. This study presents the results of a field survey in three counties where rills and ephemeral gullies were measured after this event. Shifting weather conditions with freezing and thawing had given frozen subsoil. Topsoil conditions varied from ice- and snow-covered surface to thawed surface with frozen subsoil. In one of the areas with a high clay content, only the upper topsoil layer was unfrozen during this event. Extended sheet erosion and smaller rills occurred. In the southernmost locations, more of the topsoil profile was unfrozen. Combined with a high silt/sand content, more severe rilling and ephemeral gullies developed. Gullies developed down to the depth of the drainpipes in all locations. This erosion equals soil losses of more than 100 tons ha⁻¹ or 8–9 mm soil lost from the entire field area. Different mechanisms for gully development were registered. Gullies developed as enlarged rills with headward migration and sidewall sloughing. Knickpoints in the slope could also lead to gully development. Concentrated water flow entering the field from farmyards, roads, neighbouring fields and woods could be the starting point for uncontrolled rilling and ephemeral gullying. The combination of frozen subsoil, saturated soil with low strength and intense rainfall led to gully development also on areas with gentle slopes, especially sandy soils. Management practices like crop cover, tillage and lack of surface water control highly influenced the development of gullies.     

陕北黄土区退耕前（1976—1997）坡面切沟发育特征

以陕北黄土区坊塌流域内7条大切沟及其谷缘上的小切沟为研究对象,通过Arc GIS和MATLAB从基于1976、1997年1:10000比例尺地形图生成的数字高程模型(DEM)上提取沟沿线,进而获得1976、1997年大切沟的面积、周长和大切沟上小切沟沟头前进距离,并结合当时的土地利用图和植被覆盖图,定量研究了退耕前陕北黄土区切沟发育的速率,以及土地利用类型和植被覆盖度对切沟发育的影响.结果显示:在1976-1997年间,7条大切沟的面积、周长增长率分别为11.01%~180.46%和8.07%~86.75%,大切沟上小切沟沟头年均前进速率为0.26~0.84m;由溯源侵蚀导致的小切沟沟头前进是研究区内大切沟上的主要侵蚀方式,大切沟沟谷拓宽和形成新的小切沟分别是对大切沟的面积和周长增长具有较高贡献率的侵蚀方式;林草覆盖能控制切沟发育,集水区内覆盖度大于65%的植被能更加有效地控制大切沟内以沟谷拓宽为主的、多过程、多部位的综合切沟侵蚀,覆盖度大于45%的植被能更加有效地控制大切沟上小切沟沟头的溯源侵蚀.研究表明基于GIS技术和不同年份的地形图,可以确定切沟侵蚀的方式及速率,实现对切沟发育的动态监测.     

Land use change and gully formation over the last 200 years in a hilly catchment

Gully erosion can be widely observed on cultivated hillslopes in Hungary. Loose sediments covering two thirds of the total area of the country are prone to gully erosion.A detailed study of gully formation was carried out in the Rakaca catchment (58 km²), northeastern Hungary. The objectives include (1) a detailed survey of the present gullies, (2) an explanation of differences in gully distribution within the catchment, (3) clarification of the role of influencing factors like slope gradient, vegetation cover and soil type and (4) a study of changes of gully distribution and development in time over the last 200 years based on the comparison of topographic maps.The present gully distribution was first surveyed by applying 1:10 000 topographic maps and aerial photographs. The total length of the network is 70.9 km, i.e. 1.22 km/km². Distribution inhomogeneities within the catchment can well be explained by differences in slope gradient and vegetation cover.The rate of increase of the gully length per unit area (1 km²) calculated for different time periods shows the following trends: (1) until 1860, when more than 50% of the catchment was forested, it was 5 m year⁻¹ km⁻²; (2) between 1860 and 1920, when forest area dropped to almost 25% and agricultural land use was extended to slopes steeper than 25%, it still remained at roughly 5 m year⁻¹ km⁻²; (3) after 1920, with 24–25% forest cover and with the extension of farming activity to the steepest slopes, it reached 10 m year⁻¹ km⁻².It could be shown that gully erosion on cultivated slopes leads to the development of gully systems in 50–60 years even if slope gradient is below 12%.To prevent further development of gully systems, it is suggested that at least 30% of the area should be forested and slopes steeper than 17% should not be cultivated at all.