Estimating Aboveground Net Primary Production in Grasslands: A Comparison of Nondestructive Methods

Aboveground net primary production (ANPP) is an important ecosystem property that is affected by environmental variability. ANPP in grasslands is typically measured by clipping peak live plant material. However, this method is time intensive (and therefore expensive), making it difficult to capture spatial and temporal variability. Additionally, it is impractical to use a destructive method to estimate ANPP in long-term, permanent plots. Thus, many double-sampling techniques have been developed to reduce costs and increase sample size. The objective of our study was to assess the accuracy and precision of nondestructive techniques to estimate ANPP as supplements to the traditional method of peak biomass harvest at two grassland sites. We harvested biomass and compared estimates from the same plots to 1) canopy interception using a point frame, 2) green cover estimates derived from a digital camera, and 3) reflectance measurements using a handheld radiometer. We calculated the optimum allocation of sampling effort to direct and indirect methods to minimize sampling cost yet achieve a desired precision. We found that the point frame technique explained the highest proportion of the variability in biomass at both sites (R² = 0.91, 0.90). However, our cost-optimization analysis revealed that the radiometer technique, although less accurate (R² = 0.38, 0.51), could achieve a desired precision for lower labor costs than the point frame. The radiometer and point frame methods will be a useful tool for grassland ecologists and rangeland managers who desire fast, nondestructive estimates of ANPP.     

Estimating Sagebrush Biomass Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning

The presence of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) in rangelands has declined due to the invasion of annual grasses such as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and the feedback between these flammable grasses and wildfire frequency. Monitoring the change and distribution of suitable habitat and fuel loads is an important aspect of sagebrush management, particularly under future climate conditions. Assessments of sagebrush biomass are used to monitor habitat for critical wildlife species, determine fire risk, and quantify carbon storage. Field techniques such as destructive and point-intercept sampling have been used to determine sagebrush biomass, but both of these techniques can be expensive and time consuming to implement. Light detection and ranging techniques, including airborne laser scanning and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) have potential for rapidly assessing biomass in sagebrush steppe. This study used TLS to estimate biomass of 29 sagebrush plants in Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed, Idaho. Biomass was estimated using TLS-derived volume, then compared with destructive samples to assess the estimation accuracy. This accuracy level was then contrasted with the estimates obtained using point-intercept sampling of the same plants. The TLS approach (R² = 0.90) was slightly better for predicting total biomass than point-intercept sampling (R² = 0.85). Prediction of green biomass, or production, was more accurate using TLS-derived volume (R² = 0.86) than point-intercept sampling (R² = 0.65). This study explores a promising new method to repeatedly monitor sagebrush biomass across extensive landscapes. Future work should focus on making this method independent of sensor type, scan distance, scan number, and study area.     

Comparison of Two Sampling Methods for Quantifying Changes in Vegetation Composition Under Rangeland Development

Rapid vegetation sampling methods based on visual estimation are useful for monitoring changes in rangeland vegetation composition because large spatial and temporal scales are often involved and have limited sampling resources available. Here we compared two sampling methods in their ability to detect changes in vegetation composition following rangeland development: 1) species percent cover estimates within subplots (the percent cover [PC] method) and 2) rankings of relative biomass of the 10 most abundant species across the whole plot and the ratio of two of them (the visual ranking [VR] method). Both methods were applied on 30 experimental plots at year 26 of a long-term factorial trial of five soil fertility levels and three sheep grazing intensities. Multivariate statistical methods showed significant effects of experimental treatments (fertilizer level and sheep grazing intensity) and of vegetation sampling method (VR vs. PC) on vegetation composition. Importantly, we detected no significant interactions involving sampling method, indicating that the effect of sampling method was consistent across experimental treatments. Effects of fertilizer on vegetation composition were an order of magnitude greater than the effect of sampling method, whereas the latter was twice as important as the effect of grazing. Results were robust to differential weights given to relative abundances vs. compositional changes. Differences between methods were primarily driven by the PC method giving lower abundance estimates of one species, lupin (a hybrid of Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl.), relative to the VR method. Our results support the use of the VR method as a rapid yet powerful method for monitoring changes in vegetation composition under rangeland development.     

Long-term impacts of livestock grazing and browsing in the Succulent Karoo: a 20-year study of vegetation change under different grazing regimes in Namaqualand§

This study used a fence-line contrast approach to investigate the long-term impact of high grazing pressure on the vegetation at a site in Namaqualand, South Africa. Forty pairs of permanently marked plots were surveyed in 1996, 2006 and 2016. The main objective was to investigate changes in the vegetation structure and species composition between the near-continuously grazed communal rangelands and the relatively lightly grazed commercial rangelands over the 20-year period. The results showed a decline in total vegetation cover in both commercial and communal rangelands in 2016 relative to the two earlier sampling periods. This can be attributed to the low rainfall in 2016 and was due largely to a reduction in annual plant cover, especially on the communal rangeland. Perennial shrub species provide a fodder bank that can be utilised by livestock in times of drought and can buffer short-term deficits in forage supply. However, the annuals that dominate the vegetation of the communal rangeland do not form such fodder banks and consequently do not have the same multi-year buffering capacity as perennial shrubs. This provides the mechanism whereby long-term continuous grazing decreases resilience to rainfall fluctuations and increases livestock variability, thereby promoting non-equilibrium-type dynamics in the system.     

Indirect Measurement of Leaf Area Index in Sagebrush-Steppe Rangelands

Leaf area index (LAI) is defined as the one-sided area of leaves above a unit area of ground. It is a fundamental ecosystem parameter that is a required input of process-based plant growth and biogeochemical models. Direct measurement of LAI is the most accurate method, but is destructive, time-consuming, and labor-intensive. LAI is highly variable in time and space on sagebrush-steppe rangelands, and a rapid, nondestructive method is desirable to understand ecosystem processes. The point-intercept method is nondestructive and has been demonstrated to provide accurate LAI estimates, but the method is time-consuming. LAI measurement with the Accupar ceptometer (Decagon Devices, Pullman, WA) is nondestructive and faster than the point-intercept method, but has not been evaluated on sagebrush-steppe rangelands. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ceptometer for measurement of LAI in sagebrush-steppe rangelands. Ceptometer and point-intercept LAI data were collected at six sites in sagebrush-steppe rangelands and the values were compared. We found that 1) ceptometer LAI data were consistently greater than point-intercept LAI data, 2) ceptometer data were much more variable than the point-intercept data based on standard deviations, and 3) the overall correlation between the two methods was very weak (r² = 0.15). The much greater ceptometer LAI values were, at least partly, due to the large woody component of the vegetative cover. We attribute the high variability of ceptometer-measured LAI to high instrument sensitivity of the angle of the instrument relative to the sun.     

Appropriate Sample Sizes for Monitoring Burned Pastures in Sagebrush Steppe: How Many Plots are Enough,and Can One Size Fit All?

Statistically defensible information on vegetation conditions is needed to guide rangeland management decisions following disturbances such as wildfire, often for heterogeneous pastures. Here we evaluate sampling effort needed to achieve a robust statistical threshold using > 2 000 plots sampled on the 2015 Soda Fire that burned across 75 pastures and 113 000 ha in Idaho and Oregon. We predicted that the number of plots required to generate a threshold of standard error/mean ≤ 0.2 (TSR, threshold sampling requirement) for plant cover within pasture units would vary between sampling methods (rapid ocular versus grid-point intercept) and among plot sizes (1, 6, or 531 m²), as well as relative to topography, elevation, pasture size, spatial complexity of soils, vegetation treatments (herbicide or seeding), and dominance by exotic annual or perennial grasses. Sampling was adequate for determining exotic annual and perennial grass cover in about half of the pastures. A tradeoff in number versus size of plots sampled was apparent, whereby TSR was attainable with less area searched using smaller plot sizes (1 compared with 531 m²) in spite of less variability between larger plots. TSR for both grass types decreased as their dominance increased (0.5–1.5 plots per % cover increment). TSR decreased for perennial grass but increased for exotic annual grass with higher elevations. TSR increased with standard deviation of elevation for perennial grass sampled with grid-point intercept. Sampling effort could be more reliably predicted from landscape variables for the grid-point compared with the ocular sampling method. These findings suggest that adjusting the number and size of sample plots within a pasture or burn area using easily determined landscape variables could increase monitoring efficiency and effectiveness.     

Estimates of Willow (Salix Spp.) Canopy Volume using Unmanned Aerial Systems

Management of livestock grazing in riparian areas is an important aspect of rangeland management. Willows (Salix spp.) are a common riparian plant serving as an ecosystem stabilizer, as well as providing important habitat, but browsing or trampling by cattle can decrease willow canopy volume. Canopy volume can be measured on the ground with hours of meticulous data collection. However, canopy volume estimates from drone-collected images could be a more efficient and objective method for measuring willow canopy volume and understanding the impact of livestock use on riparian woody vegetation. Our objective was to determine how well drone-based measurements of willow canopy volume corresponded to field measurements in a southern Idaho riparian area before and after a grazing trial. We used sets of overlapping aerial images from a DJI Phantom 4 Professional drone to construct 3-dimensional point clouds of willows. From these point clouds we estimated willow canopy volume using 2 techniques and compared those with canopy volume estimates from field measurements of 58 willows ranging in height from 0.76 m to 4.57 m. Point cloud canopy volume estimates using both techniques showed high correspondence with field-estimated volume (R² > 0.8) for both pregrazing and postgrazing. However, point cloud techniques generally underestimated canopy volume compared with the field technique. Drone-based estimates took ≈4 h per sampling event (i.e., pregrazing, postgrazing) including acquiring and processing the imagery, whereas field-based measurements took ≈10 h per sampling event. These results demonstrate drone-collected images may be an effective tool for measuring and monitoring riparian woody vegetation.     

Geospatial Assessment of Grazing Regime Shifts and Sociopolitical Changes in a Mongolian Rangeland

Drastic changes have occurred in Mongolia’s grazing land management over the last two decades, but their effects on rangelands are ambiguous. Temporal trends in Mongolia’s rangeland condition have not been well documented relative to the effects of long-term management changes. This study examined changes in grazing land use and rangeland biomass associated with the transition from the socialist collective to the current management systems in the Tsahiriin tal area of northern Mongolia. Grazing lands in Tsahiriin tal that were formerly managed by the socialist collective are now used by numerous nomadic households with their privately owned herds, although the lands remain publicly owned. Grazing pressure has more than tripled and herd distribution has changed from a few spatially clustered large herds of sheep to numerous smaller herds of multiple species. Landsat image–derived normalized-difference vegetation index estimates suggest that rangeland biomass significantly decreased (P < 0.001) from the collective to the postcollective periods. The observed decrease was significantly correlated with changes in the grazing management system and increased stocking density (P < 0.001), even when potential climate-induced changes were considered. Furthermore, field- and Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre imagery–based rangeland assessments in 2007 and 2008 indicate that current rangeland biomass is low. Spatial pattern analyses show that the low biomass is uniform throughout the study site. The observed decrease in rangeland biomass might be further accelerated if current grazing land use continues with no formal rangeland management institution or organized, well-structured efforts by the local herding households.     

Effect of Plateau Zokor (Myospalax fontanierii) Disturbance on Plant Community Structure and Soil Properties in the Eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

Plateau zokor (Myospalax fontanierii) is a native subterranean rodent in alpine rangeland on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) in China, and its foraging, digging, and mounds building cause the unique disturbance pattern to alpine rangeland ecosystem. Over the past decades, the zokors have been regarded as major pests who result in the degradation of the rangeland ecosystem in the QTP and have been simply eliminated by rodenticides or traps. Understanding the function of zokors and evaluating the zokors’ impacts on alpine rangeland systems should be the solid scientific basis for zokor control. In this study, we considered the average nearest neighbor indices of zokor mounds to represent the disturbance intensity of zokor to alpine rangeland and surveyed the plant species richness, diversity indices, biomass, and soil physicochemical properties in intermound areas under different zokor disturbance intensities in alpine rangeland in Tianzhu Tibet Autonomous County, located in eastern QTP. Our results indicated that 1) the plant species diversity indices were positively correlated with zokor disturbance intensity and aboveground and belowground biomasses were not significantly different under the different disturbance intensities; 2) the importance value of the forb functional group increased as the disturbance intensities increased, and the sedge functional group showed the opposite trend. The proportions of aboveground and belowground biomasses of forbs increased as the disturbance level increased; 3) there were no changes in the dominant plant species among the different disturbance intensities, but new plant species (Polygonum viviparum and Equisetum arvense) occurred in the plots with high disturbance intensities; 4) a significant positive correlation was observed between soil moisture in the 0-20 cm layer and disturbance intensity, while soil temperature exhibited a significantly negative relationship with the disturbance intensity; however, no differences in soil chemical properties were observed; and 5) redundancy analysis identified that mound building changed soil physical properties, especially soil moisture, in intermound areas, which influenced the plant community structure. In conclusion, the plateau zokor in our study area increased plant species diversity and did not decrease plant biomass, which is beneficial for alpine rangeland systems. We suggest that rangeland managers should consider the multiple functions of zokors to an alpine rangeland ecosystem instead of simply eliminating them.     

高寒生态脆弱区不同扰动类型草地植被群落状况

通过实地调查及实验室方法测定天祝高寒生态脆弱区5种扰动生境(一年生草地、多年生草地、围栏草地、牧道草地及"黑土滩"草地)的植被群落状况。结果表明,植物群落组成在一年生草地中99%为燕麦、多年生草地中80%为垂穗披碱草和无芒雀麦、3种天然草地中以嵩草、苔草、针茅、珠芽蓼、棘豆、委陵菜为主。群落高度、植被盖度及地上生物量在一年生草地中都相对较大,是人为因素(如农耕)干扰最强,其优势度随时间推移而上升,生境内植物种类多样性下降;而优势度在"黑土滩"草地中呈现低水平,是自然环境压力包括生物因素(如鼠类)干扰最强,原始植被破坏程度高,需要进行大量植被恢复工作,其群落高度、植被盖度及地上生物量也相对较低;其他生境的优势度随着放牧程度的增加而减小。由此可见,放牧和鼠害仍然是高寒草甸生态破坏的一个最重要原因。     

Linking Phenology and Biomass Productivity in South Dakota Mixed-Grass Prairie

Assessing the health of rangeland ecosystems based solely on annual biomass production does not fully describe the condition of the plant community; the phenology of production can provide inferences about species composition, successional stage, and grazing impacts. We evaluated the productivity and phenology of western South Dakota mixed-grass prairie in the period from 2000 to 2008 using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The NDVI is based on 250-m spatial resolution Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery. Growing-season NDVI images were integrated weekly to produce time-integrated NDVI (TIN), a proxy of total annual biomass production, and integrated seasonally to represent annual production by cool- and warm-season species (C₃ and C_4, respectively). Additionally, a variety of phenological indicators including cool-season percentage of TIN were derived from the seasonal profiles of NDVI. Cool-season percentage and TIN were combined to generate vegetation classes, which served as proxies of the conditions of plant communities. TIN decreased with precipitation from east to west across the study area. However, the cool-season percentage increased from east to west, following patterns related to the reliability (interannual coefficient of variation [CV]) and quantity of midsummer precipitation. Cool-season TIN averaged 76.8% of the total TIN. Seasonal accumulation of TIN corresponded closely (R² > 0.90) to that of gross photosynthesis data from a carbon flux tower. Field-collected biomass and community composition data were strongly related to TIN and cool-season percentage. The patterns of vegetation classes were responsive to topographic, edaphic, and land management influences on plant communities. Accurate maps of biomass production, cool- and warm-season composition, and vegetation classes can improve the efficiency of land management by facilitating the adjustment of stocking rates and season of use to maximize rangeland productivity and achieve conservation objectives. Further, our results clarify the spatial and temporal dynamics of phenology and TIN in mixed-grass prairie.     

高寒草甸植物群落结构对高原鼠兔种群密度的影响

利用草地改良措施探讨了禾草补播和人工草地建植对高原鼠兔种群密度的影响,以期为有害啮齿动物的植被调控提供理论依据。在高原鼠兔分布密集草地建立围栏样地50 hm²,同时在围栏内选择20 hm²样地进行垂穗披碱草补播和人工草地建植,探讨草地植物群落结构的变化对高原鼠兔种群密度的影响。结果表明,鼠害草地、补播草地和人工草地除物种数外,物种多样性指数(H')、植被盖度、密度、高度和地上生物量均表现出显著差异(P<0.01)。其中物种多样性指数表现为补播草地>鼠害草地>人工草地;植被盖度、密度、高度和地上生物量均表现为人工草地>补播草地>鼠害草地。群落中垂穗披碱草所占比重亦大不相同,鼠害草地中垂穗披碱草比重不足10%,而补播草地和人工草地群落中,垂穗披碱草比重分别达50%和90%以上。不论是总洞口数还是有效洞口数,在3种草地中都存在显著差异,总洞口数变化在35~411,其中,鼠害草地的总洞口数是补播草地的2.28倍,是垂穗披碱草草地的11.74倍;有效洞口数变化在11~188,鼠害草地是补播草地的2.26倍,是垂穗披碱草草地的17.09倍,表明垂穗披碱草群落对高原鼠兔有显著的抑制作用。此外,高原鼠兔种群密度与草地植被特征间有不同的关系。无论是总洞口数还是有效洞口数与植物物种数间均无显著相关关系,与H'间则呈二次函数关系;高原鼠兔总洞口数及有效洞口数分别与植被盖度、密度、高度及地上生物量呈显著负相关关系。此结果表明,相对于鼠害严重草地,无论是补播草地,还是人工种植草地,植物群落结构的变化对鼠兔种群密度都有重要的影响。     

Allometric Estimates of Aboveground Biomass Using Cover and Height Are Improved by Increasing Specificity of Plant Functional Groups in Eastern Australian Rangelands

Plant aboveground biomass (AGB) is a useful metric to assess ecosystem functioning, and its sensitivity to changing environmental conditions provides insight into potential global change impacts. Allometric estimates of AGB using vegetation characteristics such as plant cover or height provide nondestructive biomass proxies for repeated measurements but can introduce uncertainty to estimates. We estimated the relationship between both plant cover and a cover·height index and AGB for 15 plant species from six sites to identify the most reliable approach to estimate biomass nondestructively in semiarid eastern Australian rangelands. Estimates were made by grouping species at four different levels of specificity, to test whether generic estimates were more robust than grouping species based on life history and morphological characteristics. Estimates were then tested on a 1.5-m² plot at each site for validation. In all cases, models were highly significant (P < 0.001) with adjusted R² values ranging from 0.42 to 0.96 for cover models and 0.38 to 0.98 for cover·height index models. We found the addition of height improved model fits in four groups while reducing model fits in two groups. The error around AGB estimates for cover·height index−based models ranged from −66.8 to 4% (absolute mean 35%). Cover-based models had errors between −13.4% and 53% (absolute mean 14.2%). For cover-based estimates of AGB in validation plots, grouping plants by plant functional types (PFTs) increased accuracy (absolute mean error 17.3%) compared with estimates using data from all 15 species (absolute mean of 65.2%). Overall cover was a useful surrogate to estimate AGB (with the exception of one site, accuracy ranged from −2.3% to 11.5%), while height (thought to be a surrogate for canopy characteristics) provided benefit in a few circumstances. We suggest that future research should test additional nondestructive proxies and group species based on PFTs to improve AGB estimates using allometry.     

Grazing Intensity on Vegetation Dynamics of a Typical Steppe in Northeast Inner Mongolia

Vegetation features radiating from residential areas in response to livestock grazing were quantified for an arid steppe rangeland in the Keshiketeng Banner, Chifeng Prefecture, in northeastern Inner Mongolia in 2004 and 2006. The aim of this study was to estimate grazing impacts on the vegetation dynamics of these historical grazed ecosystems. Grazing intensities were classified as reference area (RA), light (LG), moderate (MG), and heavy (HG) according to the vegetation utilization across the study area. Rangelands were studied along a grazing gradient, where characteristics of plant communities, heights of dominant species, aboveground vertical structures, and belowground biomass were investigated. Along this grazing gradient, vegetation changed from the original dominant plant species Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel. to a semi-subshrub species Artemisia frigida Willd. when moving from the reference area (RA) to the region around the settlement. Canopy coverage, aboveground productivity, and the number of perennial species declined as one moved toward the residential area. Heights of five dominant species, except for Stipa grandis P. Smirn., declined with increased grazing intensity. Aboveground vertical structure in the RA treatment showed more resilience than the other treatments. There was no difference in root biomass in the top 1 m of soil (P > 0.05) between the RA treatment and the area immediately around settlement (HG treatment). Generally, we found that the intensity of grazing disturbance did not exceed the tolerance of the rangeland ecosystem within LG treatment. However, vegetative conditions in HG treatment became worse with increased grazing pressure. Rangelands in this arid steppe are under tremendous threat due to excessive forage utilization, which cannot be considered a sustainable practice.     

基于旋翼无人机低空遥感的高原鼠兔危害等级划分技术研究

高原鼠兔是青藏高原特有的小型啮齿动物,是高寒草地生态系统的关键种。科学合理防控高原鼠兔危害,对其危害程度开展监测和评价十分必要。通过无人机空中遥感平台并结合地面调查,以甘肃省玛曲县高原鼠兔危害草地为研究对象,选择不同危害程度的典型样地,采用自主设计的软件提取无人机影像中高原鼠兔洞口数、地上生物量、草地盖度等指标;构建了由洞口数、地上生物量、盖度和可食牧草比例组成的高原鼠兔危害等级综合指标体系,并对研究区样地进行危害等级划分。最终形成一套适用于高原鼠兔危害的低空遥感监测方法,可为后期高效、准确监测高原鼠兔危害提供有力的技术支持。主要结果如下：1）经实地人工调查结果验证,无人机影像洞口数量和植被盖度解译精度分别达到95%和93%。2）筛选了可见光波段差值植被指数VDVI作为估测地上生物量的最佳植被指数,并构建了估测模型。经实地调查验证平均精度为86.54%。3）构建了综合危害指数DRI,并提出了划分危害级别的各指标量化值。通过聚类分析将研究区鼠害地划分为5个等级,即I-无危害草地,Ⅱ-轻度危害草地,Ⅲ-中度危害草地,Ⅳ-重度危害草地,V-极度危害草地。     

An Assessment of Nonequilibrium Dynamics in Rangelands of the Aru Basin,Northwest Tibet,China

An assessment of nonequilibrium rangeland dynamics was conducted in the Aru basin, a semiarid site located in the very dry northwest part of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve, Tibet, China. A grazing gradient approach was used to examine the effects of different livestock grazing intensities on vegetation, providing data to determine if plant–herbivore interaction has been a major structuring force of the plant community and thus to indicate what type of dynamic might apply in the study area. No significant differences were found between a highly grazed site and a lightly grazed site in vegetation cover, standing biomass, and Shannon–Wiener species diversity index of total, graminoid, forb, and tomtza (Oxytropis glacialis Benth. ex Bunge) functional groups, with the exception that tomtza coverage was significantly higher at the highly grazed (1.04%) than at the lightly grazed site (0.02%). Grazing intensity alone did not explain a significant amount of variation in the plant species data. These results indicate that a dominance of nonequilibrium dynamics appears to be the case in the basin, probably one of the least-arid sites in the northwest Chang Tang region of the Tibetan Plateau. Thus, opportunistic livestock management strategies adapted to variable vegetation production from year to year, rather than the setting of a rigid stocking rate that assumes a stable carrying capacity, is probably the most plausible approach for managing livestock and its relationship to biodiversity values in this region.     

Monitoring Geomorphic and Traditional Post-Mine Reclamation using Digital Imagery: Vegetative Heterogeneity and Sampling Efficiency

Geomorphic reclamation creates variable topography and surface architecture, including rolling hillslopes and drainages. In contrast, traditional methods of reclamation result in landscapes susceptible to erosion due to steep, linear gradients. Geomorphic approaches to surface mine reclamation are relatively new, and hypotheses suggest the use of geomorphic principles in reclamation will improve vegetation outcomes relative to traditional methods. Topographic variability created by geomorphic reclamation likely results in more environmental heterogeneity, which should correlate with greater plant diversity. We examined revegetation outcomes of traditional and geomorphic reclamation on two reclaimed surface mines in Wyoming using nadir image sampling. Functional group diversity and measures of cover were compared between reclamation methods and undisturbed rangeland. Geomorphic reclamation supported greater total richness and greater native functional group richness relative to traditional reclamation. Native species cover on geomorphic reclamation, particularly for native perennial grasses, was either similar to undisturbed rangeland or greater than undisturbed rangeland and traditional reclamation. Reclamation shrub cover differed significantly from undisturbed sites, but was greater in geomorphic treatments. Results of nadir image analysis are compared to line-point intercept data from the same locations and outcomes are discussed in light of different reclamation techniques and sampling methods. Significant differences in cover categories were observed between nadir image and line-point intercept methods, however both methods revealed similar patterns between study sites.     

Weather-Centric Rangeland Revegetation Planning

Invasive annual weeds negatively impact ecosystem services and pose a major conservation threat on semiarid rangelands throughout the western United States. Rehabilitation of these rangelands is challenging due to interannual climate and subseasonal weather variability that impacts seed germination, seedling survival and establishment, annual weed dynamics, wildfire frequency, and soil stability. Rehabilitation and restoration outcomes could be improved by adopting a weather-centric approach that uses the full spectrum of available site-specific weather information from historical observations, seasonal climate forecasts, and climate-change projections. Climate data can be used retrospectively to interpret success or failure of past seedings by describing seasonal and longer-term patterns of environmental variability subsequent to planting. A more detailed evaluation of weather impacts on site conditions may yield more flexible adaptive-management strategies for rangeland restoration and rehabilitation, as well as provide estimates of transition probabilities between desirable and undesirable vegetation states. Skillful seasonal climate forecasts could greatly improve the cost efficiency of management treatments by limiting revegetation activities to time periods where forecasts suggest higher probabilities of successful seedling establishment. Climate-change projections are key to the application of current environmental models for development of mitigation and adaptation strategies and for management practices that require a multidecadal planning horizon. Adoption of new weather technology will require collaboration between land managers and revegetation specialists and modifications to the way we currently plan and conduct rangeland rehabilitation and restoration in the Intermountain West.     

Lack of Native Vegetation Recovery Following Biological Control of Leafy Spurge

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is an aggressive exotic species that has been successfully suppressed in a variety of situations using classical biological control (flea beetles; Aphthona spp.). This 9-yr study investigated patterns of vegetation responses following significant reductions in leafy spurge cover and density by flea beetles in southeastern Montana. We hypothesized that the vegetation following leafy spurge suppression would be dominated by species and plant functional groups able to persist through heavy infestations. Flea beetles were first released in 1998, and by 2006 leafy spurge foliar cover was reduced 80% to 90% compared to 1998 values on both release and nonrelease plots. Although total cover of the resident vegetation, excluding leafy spurge, increased 72% to 88%, relative cover of the functional groups (native forbs, native sedges, native grasses, and non-native species) was similar among years and between release and nonrelease plots. Mean diversity and mean species richness values did not differ among years or between release and nonrelease plots (P < 0.05), but mean diversity on both release and nonrelease plots was significantly less than noninfested plots, although richness was similar (P < 0.05). Indicator species analysis revealed that non-native Poa spp. replaced leafy spurge as the dominant species on release and nonrelease plots. Conversely, noninfested plots contained a variety of native species with high indicator values. Although total abundance of the resident vegetation in 2006 was significantly greater than 1998, plant species composition and relative cover showed little change for the duration of the study. Failure of the native vegetation to recover to a community that approached nearby noninfested conditions may be attributed to a variety of interacting scenarios, some of which may be ameliorated by treating infestations as soon as possible to avoid long-term residual effects.     

Wildlife Responses to Vegetation Height Management in Cool-season Grasslands

Herbaceous vegetation comprises the main habitat type in cool-seasons grasslands and can be managed by various methods. We compared changes in plant communities and bird and mammal use of grasslands that were not managed, managed by mechanical methods (mowing), or managed by chemical methods (plant growth regulator). This 1-year study was conducted from May through October 2003 in Erie County, Ohio. Twelve circular 1.5 ha plots were established: 4 were not managed, 4 were mowed to maintain vegetation height between 9–15 cm, and 4 were sprayed with a plant growth regulator and mowed when vegetation exceeded 15 cm. We monitored vegetation growth, measured plant community composition, and observed all plots for wildlife activity each week. Vegetation in unmanaged plots was taller and denser (P < 0.001) than vegetation in mowed and growth regulator plots. Plant community characteristics differed among study plots (P < 0.001); managed plots had higher grass cover and lower woody cover than unmanaged plots. We observed more (P < 0.001) total birds per 5-minute survey in unmanaged than mowed or growth regulator plots. We observed more (P < 0.001) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in mowed plots than either control or growth regulator plots. We captured 13 small mammals in unmanaged plots and no small mammals in managed plots. Applying the plant growth regulator was not a cost-effective alternative to mowing for managing vegetation height in our study. Vegetation height management practices altered plant communities and animal use of grassland areas and thus might be useful for accomplishing species-specific habitat management objectives.