The economic performance of urban gardening in three European cities – examples from Ljubljana,Milan and London

Urban gardening is not a new phenomenon but it has received considerably more practical and academic interest in recent years. Studies on economic aspects such as crop yields, inputs and outputs of production, productivity, gross margins and the contribution to home economics are rare, especially in Europe. While urban gardening plays an important role in the Global South, its role in Western Europe for food productivity and home economics is currently under-researched. The aim of this study is to analyse European urban gardeners’ economic performance and self-sufficiency on a household level, as well as to reach a better understanding of their contribution to food self-provision and food security in the metropolitan areas. In a study carried out in 2014 with on-site personal and with online questionnaires participated 180 urban gardeners from three case study cities (Ljubljana, Milan, and London). Results from the economic analysis showed that although for most urban gardeners, profit is not their main motivation, the economic calculation shows that productivity in small urban plots can be comparable to market garden production. Urban gardeners are saving money, especially when, compared to retail prices for regular produce or organic produce, their input is included in the gross margin calculation. We conclude that, in the case-study cities, the self-provisional potential of urban gardeners’ households to adequately cover the annual vegetable need of five-a-day servings can be met under three conditions: (1) sufficient garden size; (2) increased area productivity, and (3) sufficient labour-hour inputs.     

Auswirkungen von Ausd��nnungsma?nahmen auf Ertragsparameter, Krankheitsbefall und Fruchtqualit?t von S��?kirschen (Prunus avium L.) unter ?kologischen Anbaubedingungen

In 2010, various thinning methods were tested in an organically managed cherry orchard at the experimental farm of the Institute in Vienna. We tested a portable thinning machine (Effleureuse) and a manual method to remove flowers, and thinning of young cherries at the stage of pea size. Between beginning of flowering and full flowering we treated twice with wettable sulphur (4 %), lime sulphur (3 %), vinasse (6 %), potassium soap (Neudosan 6 %) and copper (Cuprofor 0.5 %) as well as ATS (1.8 %) as IP-standard. Additionally to the thinning effect, the impact on fruit size, fruit quality and diseases (Monilinia ssp.) was assessed. Some treatments (Effleureuse, manual thinning of young fruits, lime sulphur, ATS) showed a strong thinning effect and an increase of fruit size. Nevertheless, yield losses due to lower number of fruits caused by thinning could only partly be replaced through higher fruit size. The Effleureuse showed a high thinning effect, because of lower costs it is more suitable for farmers than hand thinning of flowers or fruits. The treatments with lime sulphur and wettable sulphur had a reducing effect on flower infestations with Monilinia laxa. No influence on fruit diseases and internal fruit quality could be found between treatments and control.     

Einleitung zur Jubil?umsausgabe ?Mitteilungen des Obstbauversuchsringes des Alten Landes e.?V.�� anl?sslich des 75-j?hrigen Jubil?ums der OVA Jork

The Fruit Experiment Station (OVA) was founded on 1 April 1935 as an offspring of the regional Advisory Service. Due to apple scab and apple sucker, profitable fruit production was all but impossible at the time. Therefore, crop protection strategies had to be devised during the 1930s. Recurrent frost damage in the 1940s led to the initiation of a regional breeding programme which produced successes such as the apple variety ??Gloster??, the sweet cherry variety ??Regina??, and rootstock J9. After the 1962 storm tide, the experimental farm moved to the Esteburg site during the 1960s. Economic pressure during the following two decades demanded productivity gains and more widely marketable fruit varieties. This led to a switch in production from seedling rootstocks to rootstock M9 during the 1970s and 1980s, and to the introduction of the two lead varieties ??Elstar?? and ??Jonagold/Jonagored?? which have remained the most important varieties to this day. Further trends with an influence on current fruit production are the development of the concept of Integrated Production at the end of the 1980s, negotiations towards a special regulatory status of the region, and the beginning of experimental work for organic fruit production. Following the accommodation of the class of vocational education, a holistic concept of research, advisory service and education at the ESTEBURG site represents the foundation for a successful future.     

磷肥对籽瓜产量和效益的影响

采用田间试验方法研究N、P、K不同配比和P的不同用量对籽瓜经济性状、产量和经济效益的影响。结果表明:N、P2O5和K2O的用量分别为150、150、90kg/hm2,籽瓜的产量、经济性状和经济效益表现最好,比分别不施N、P和K肥的各处理增产25%、33%和5%,除去肥料成本,分别增收1951、2508和234元/hm2;有效提高了单瓜重、单瓜籽粒数和籽粒重,并减少了白籽率;得出在甘肃农垦八一农场小井子分农场限制籽瓜产量单质营养成分的因子是P>N>K,推荐最佳施P量为P2O5150kg/hm2。     

The consequences of cultural practices on growth and cropping of peach trees subjected to localized irrigation: Effects of soil management,nitrogen fertilization and tree density

SUMMARY

Cultural practices were studied in peach tree orchards irrigated with microsprinklers, herbicide strips being maintained along the tree rows. Differences in fruit cropping between treatments varied in the same way as tree vigour, the most vigorous trees having the highest production capacities. Concerning soil management, ground cover vegetation (permanent or temporary) improved fruit production compared with soil cultivation. According to leaf analysis, ground cover vegetation appeared to ameliorate the conditions of trees nutrition. This effect was probably mainly due to increasing soil resistance to compaction; applying organic matter was not effective in improving the performance of trees grown with soil cultivation compared with those grown with ground cover vegetation. Increasing fruit tree density also contributed to increased fruit production. Nevertheless, more than 600 trees per hectare did not allow further increase in fruit yield for the experimental cultivar. Lastly, nitrogen fertilization seemed particularly important for improving the fruiting of peach trees.     

A Review of Sooty Blotch and Flyspeck Disease in German Organic Apple Production

Sooty blotch and flyspeck (SBFS) fungi colonise the surface of a range of fruits, especially apple, without penetrating the cuticle. Economic damage results from the exclusion of severely affected fruit batches from being marketed as table apples. A study of SBFS was conducted in 2007–2012 in the two largest German apple production areas, i.e. the Lake Constance and Lower Elbe regions. The absence of this disease complex from orchards under integrated pest management in both regions in all years was explained by the collateral effects of scab and storage-rot sprays with captan and quinone-outside inhibitors (QoI) such as trifloxystrobin. However, SBFS was economically relevant in organically managed orchards, being generally more severe in Southern Germany than in the North. In both regions, Peltaster cerophilus was the most frequently isolated SBFS fungus and was chiefly responsible for crop losses. Cyphellophora sessilis, Microcyclosporella mali and Schizothyrium pomi also contributed to SBFS in some organic orchards, whereas a diversity of additional species was confined to untreated orchards. Evidence was obtained that P. cerophilus overwinters within orchards, fruit mummies being one of presumably several colonised plant organs. Infections of young apple fruits were initiated at any time following the end of flowering, and P. cerophilus was capable of causing several infection cycles per season by means of conidial inoculum. The colonisation of sheets of waxed paper by P. cerophilus indicated that this species does not require fruit leachates for growth. No further expansion of colonies was observed during cold storage; instead, P. cerophilus was gradually displaced by other fungi. Differences in the susceptibility of apple varieties to P. cerophilus were due to fruit ripening, late-maturing cultivars being most heavily colonised, and to surface properties, varieties with a waxy bloom being conspicuously less strongly colonised than others. This fungus was unable to colonise russeted fruit areas. Repeated spray treatments with lime-sulphur and potassium bicarbonate throughout the season were effective and necessary to control SBFS in organic production. This strategy threatens the fungicide-saving potential offered by scab-resistant apple varieties. Cultural measures against SBFS include summer pruning as well as the manual removal of fruit mummies in winter.     

“In the garden,I make up for what I can’t in the park”: Reconnecting retired adults with nature through cultural ecosystem services from urban gardens

While cultural ecosystem services (CES) provided by collective urban gardens have been researched for more than a decade, how knowledge of CES can inform the governance of gardens and enhance gardeners’ wellbeing remains a challenge. Retired adults are a group whose lives can be especially improved by collective gardening. We interviewed users of community and allotment gardens in Zagreb to explore their motivations for gardening and the influence of different forms of garden management on the generation of CES. Their responses were supplemented and contextualised by interviews with urban planners, academics and gardening activists. We used Fish et al. (2016) framework to identify CES in interviews. As expected, CES drove gardeners’ engagement. We grouped their motivations into six categories: escape, usefulness and tradition, home-grown produce, socialising, wellness, and private oasis. Interestingly, food production was only of secondary importance as a motivator of urban gardening. Findings are used to outline recommendations for urban planners and decision-makers regarding planning, design and management of collective gardens that would amplify the generation of CES for retired gardeners.     

郑抗无子3号西瓜品种选育研究

郑抗无子3号(原名花皮无子3号)系三倍体无子西瓜,它是以790016B四倍体西瓜为母本,HBS二倍体西瓜为父本杂交,于1994年育成的新品种。1995～2001年进行各种试验、生产试种、示范和推广,2002年1月通过国家农作物品种审定委员会审定。该品种全生育期95～100d,果实发育期30d左右,早中熟;三倍体种子采种量高、质量好,种子中等大,千粒重65g左右,种子发芽率和种芽成苗率均高;植株分枝力强、生长健壮,抗病耐湿性好,生产性状优良,易栽培管理;雌花出现早,着生较密,易坐果,果实中等大,单瓜重5kg以上,,并具有1株多果和多次结果的习性,产量高;果实圆球形,浅绿色果皮上覆数条墨绿色齿状花条,外形美观;果肉脆,颜色大红,可溶性固形物含量11.5%以上,白秕子小而少;果皮韧、果肉致密、风味正,品质优;耐贮运。     

Abteilung Integrierter Pflanzenschutz und Diagnostik

Faced with a large diversity of pests and diseases of regular or variable importance to fruit production, the Plant Protection Section has to deliver timely disease forecasts and decisions concerning potential control measures. The main strength of the Plant Protection Section has been a functional experimental set-up which lays an important foundation for the regional advisory service. Applied research has been a basis for developments in crop protection in the Lower Elbe region. Thus, crucial prerequisites for the introduction of Integrated Crop Protection have been established and further developed, always looking for solutions to existential problems. Problems in controlling of apple sucker and apple scab led to the establishment of the Fruit Experiment Station (OVA) Jork. Existential threats in subsequent years were posed by a large number of pests and diseases, including water voles and bitter rot in apple production, and fire blight, tree decline and little-cherry in sweet cherry production. Specific legislation covering the special fruit production area??Altes Land?? has been a milestone in securing the future of regional fruit production. Along similar lines, comprehensive surveys of the behaviour of crop protection compound residue have been conducted recently, the results being used as arguments against scientifically unfounded demands by food retailers concerning limitations of the number of detectable residues. The Plant Protection Section will continue to play a crucial role in the Fruit Experiment Station. Future challenges have to be met by a highly motivated and well equipped team.     

少核柑橘新品种——‘金水椪柑2号’的选育

金水椪柑2号(Citrus reticulata Blanco var.ponkan cv.Jinshui No.2 ponkan)是金水柑(C.reticulata var.ponkancv.Jinshuigan)的优良芽变单株,经过对其母本树及后代的多年观察选育而成的少核椪柑新品种。选育结果表明,该品种适应性强,抗寒,树势生长强旺,丰产稳产,后代遗传稳定;果实品质优良,种子数每果5.5粒,果实高桩扁圆形,果形指数0.98,单果质量155 g,可食率75%,风味浓郁,肉质脆嫩而化渣,可溶性固形物含量12.4%,酸1.04%,维生素C含量为268 mg·kg-1;果实于11月下旬成熟,耐贮藏。     

Ästhetische Premiumfrüchte trotz nasser Klimate – Obstbau in Südkorea

Horticulture Korea today earns 10 billion euros, to which fruit contributes 2.6 billion euros and vegetable production 6.7 billion euros. Apple, kaki, nashi, grape and Citrus contribute 100,000?ha to the overall fruit acreage of 188,000?ha. Koreas fruit industry stagnates and lacks trainees. The consolidation in the apple industry in the last ten years from 53,000?ha in 1995 to 26,000?ha today was due to over-sized aged trees on vigorous rootstocks and – by Asian standard – small-sized, sour, green and low-priced apple varieties like ‘Golden Delicious’. The new Korean cultivars ‘Hongro’ (12%) and ‘Kamhong’ (3%) supersede – apart from the major cv. ‘Fuji’ with a 65 % market share- late ripening and poorly coloured Japanese cv. ‘Tsugaru’ (8%) and ‘Kogetsu’ (5%). Apple harvest extends from August until mid November. The 200,000?t strawberries are from protected cultivation on 7,000?ha. Korea produces 2.3 million t fruit and is largely self-sufficient (84%) for fruit, except for bananas and Citrus, with 440,000?t imports and 33,000?t exports (Satsuma mandarins and Nashi to Taiwan and Japan) and 92% self-sufficiency for vegetables. Fruit consumption of 56?kg/head is half that in Germany with 120?kg/head and vegetable consumption with 170?kg/ha twice that in Germany of 90?kg/head. Apart from university research, the rural development agency (RDA) comprises a central horticultural research institute (NHRI) in Suwon with a dedicated apple (Gunwi, Daegu) and nashi (Naju) research station with extension service. Apples, peaches and nashi are bagged, particularly for export, to fulfil the fruit quality requirements. These comprise a cosmetic skin finish free of blemishes and lenticels, 250–400?g fruit mass, (dark) red colouration and sweet (13–18?° Brix) taste without acidity (0.3–0.4%), resulting in a sugar acid ratio of ca. 43?:?1 with farmgate prices of 2.4?€/kg and retail prices of 2.8–4.8?€/fruit. Historic, Japan inflicted, measures such as defoliating of fruit-bearing branches and bagging to protect the peel, which will be consequently removed with valuable nutrients, are now being questioned and re-considered. Overhead irrigation protects the orchards from frost and hence prevents alternate bearing. Korean apple orchards are devoid of apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), apple canker (Nectria galligena) and fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), despite large annual precipitation of 1,000–1,500?mm, and hence require few pesticides. With farm sizes of 0.8?ha, the 41,000 fruit farmers are not very mechanised; 3% of them subscribe to organic farming and a quarter to a voluntary IFP scheme. GAP is discussed, but QS-EUREP GAP quality schemes are not implemented given the large farm number and few fruit exports.     

The post-harvest ripening of water stressed banana fruits

SUMMARY

Maintaining banana fruit in a low humidity environment accelerated fruit ripening. This was reflected in an earlier increase in respiration and ethylene production and more advanced peel colour and pulp sugars. At the end of the trial the fruit kept in low humidity were yellow with green tips (stage 5) whereas those kept at high humidity were still green (stage 1-2). Fruit kept at low humidity did not show a large increase in pulp ethylene production compared with the fruits stored at high humidity. This difference occurred despite a large increase in the 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) content of both samples, with the low humidity fruit preceding the high by two days. The peel ethylene production of the low humidity stored fruit increased dramatically as the fruit ripened, coinciding with an increase in ACC. The ACC oxidase activity of the peel reflected the ethylene production with a large increase in the low humidity stored fruit and a later, smaller increase in the high humidity stored fruit. The ACC oxidase activity of the pulp of both low and high humidity stored fruit increased gradually during storage. The changes in ethylene production are discussed with reference to banana ripening being regarded as co-ordinated by pulp ethylene production while the peel is passive, depending on pulp ethylene production for degreening.     

Obstkonsum in China �C Anbau, Angebot und Preise

As a Northern hemisphere fruit producer, China??s harvest time overlaps with that in Europe and the US and has been dominating the worldwide fruit market. Prices and sources of fruit in China were examined in supermarkets in Beijing in May 2011 and combined with the official Chinese Agricultural Yearbook to analyse China??s fruit industry:

1. China has become the world??s no 1 for apple (25?C30 mil. t), pear (13.5 mil. t) and Citrus (23 mil. t) production based on the Chinese statistical agricultural yearbook (2009), and no. 3 for strawberry (0.65?C0.8 mil. t), with an overall fruit production of 105?C113 mil. t/year and a tendency to increase domestic fruit production and consumption.
2. Fruit acreages, reported in 2009, were 2 mil. ha for apple, 1 mil. ha for pear (inclu-ding Nashi) and 2 mil. ha for Citrus and 0.083 mil. ha for strawberry totalling 10.7 mil. ha for fruit production in China, with a tendency towards slightly decreasing orchard acreage. The average farm size was ?£?0.5 ha.
3. Fruit consumption in China was calculated as 18?C21 kg apple/head/year, 10.1 kg pear/head/year (incl. Nashi) and 77?C81 kg fruit/head/year based on 1.33 billion inhabitants and production data; this is a rise in domestic fruit consumption from 45 kg in 2002/2003 to 77?C83 kg fruit/head/year in 2008/2009.
4. Jujube fruit yielded a farm gate price of 1.20 ?/kg and cv. ??Fuji?? apple 0.55 ?/kg (5 Yuan) as for most pome and stone fruit (with higher prices in the farm shop), which doubled to 1.10 ?/kg after sea export from Qingdao harbour to Rotterdam.
5. Prices for Chinese cv. ??Fuji?? apples in Beijing supermarkets ranged from ? 0.84/kg for a poor class II to ? 2.80/kg for class I fruit. Three (??Red Delicious??, ??Gala?? and ??Granny Smith??) out of five apple varieties on sale out-of-season in China??s Capital were imported from the US or Chile, with higher prices ranging from ? 3.25 for imported cv. ??Gala??, 4.15 ?/kg for ??Red Delicious?? to ? 4.90 for cv. ??Granny Smith??.
6. The Chinese viz Asian taste prefers large, juicy and sweet, red or yellow fruit with little acidity and smooth skin viz peel finish. Surprisingly, ??Granny Smith?? apples were sold as ??green apples?? without variety name at the highest price of all apple varieties.

     

Abteilung Fruchtqualit?t und Obstlagerung

Throughout its existence, the Fruit Quality and Storage Section has been subject to continuous change. Research foci have addressed relevant problems in fruit production. Until the early post-war period, questions of adaptive fertilisation were prominent. Following the 1962 storm tide, the conversion from seedling to slow-growing rootstocks as well as polder creation influenced research of the Section. Increasing demands by food retailers for enhancement and maintenance of fruit quality have gained an ever larger importance during the past 30 yrs. In particular, the inclusion of experimental fruit storage since 1990 has led to a major shift in the focus of research.     

我国微生物肥料在果树上的应用研究进展

随着我国农业生产中化肥和农药的施入量加大,带来了土壤板结、环境污染和农药残留等一系列问题,对食品安全和农业可持续发展造成了很大的威胁和挑战,而微生物肥料正能解决这些问题。微生物肥料不但能提高植物营养元素的供应量,还能产生植物生长激素,促进植物对营养元素的吸收利用,减轻农作物的病虫害,提高作物产量。该文综述了我国微生物肥料的发展现状、作用机制及其在果树生产中的应用,评价了其作用效果,展望了其应用前景,为进一步开展微生物肥料的研究提供了一些思路和方向,对我国果树生产的可持续发展具有重要意义。     

花皮无籽西瓜新品种花花牛的选育

花花牛无籽西瓜是根据西瓜生产和市场需求,用MD03-6×MD05-8杂交选育而成的中熟花皮无籽西瓜新品种。全生育期106d,果实发育期35d,圆形果,果皮灰绿覆墨绿色锯齿条带,条纹清晰;瓜瓤红色,质脆汁多,无空心;品质优,中心可溶性固形物含量10.6%～11.83%。平均单果质量4.5kg,平均667m2产量2510.0kg,高产地块在3500kg以上。田间表现植株易坐果,轻感炭疽病,较耐病毒病、枯萎病。适宜我国华北、东北、西北等广大瓜区种植。     

加入WTO后中国果树业发展对策

针对即将加入世界贸易组织（ＷＴＯ）的新形势，分析了中国果树生产与出口在世界果业中的地位，剖析了中国果树业发展中存在的主要矛盾，提出了转变思想观念、调整产品结构与经营模式和开拓国际市场等入世对策，以求中国果业能够更加健康稳定地向前发展。     

CPPU对促进猕猴桃果实增大的研究Ⅱ．CPPU对果实品质的影响和连年使用对果实增大的效果

在研究ＣＰＰＵ促进猕猴桃果实增大效果的基础上，在使用ＣＰＰＵ后对猕猴桃果实品质的影响和连年使用ＣＰＰＵ的效果进行了研究。结果表明：ＣＰＰＵ有催熟作用，用ＣＰＰＵ处理的果实成熟期可提前１０－１５ｄ，使用浓度越高催熟作用越明显，而且采收后在室温条件下，果实的后熟过程也加快。处理果含糖量增加。有机酸含量有下降趋势。维生素Ｃ含量在高浓度（２０－３０ｍｇ·１￣（－１））情况下有下降趋势。但品尝表明，对食用品质并无不良影响。使用ＣＰＰＵ浸果不影响花芽的形成，但连续使用对促进果实的膨大作用，在不同条件下表现不同。在高水平的管理条件下，连续使用ＣＰＰＵ效果好，如果管理较差，肥、水跟不上，其效果就差。     

两个耐贮性不同的红肉苹果株系果实硬度与香气成分及相关酶活性与基因表达差异分析

以‘红心7号’和‘红心9号’两个红肉苹果新品系的成熟果实为试材,检测贮藏期间硬度与香气成分及其相关酶活性与基因表达量。‘红心9号’苹果贮藏期间果实硬度极显著低于‘红心7号’,而乙烯释放速率极显著高于‘红心7号’;总香气物质、酯类含量及AAT1、AAT2和LOX基因表达量均极显著高于‘红心7号’,而在贮藏后期(90~120 d)果实醇类与醛类含量及HPL和ADH基因表达量均极显著低于‘红心7号’;PG、XET、PME、AM、α-L-Af和β-Gal等6个果实软化相关基因表达量及其酶活性大都极显著高于‘红心7号’。上述结果表明乙烯释放速率和酯类含量高及酯类生物合成和果实软化相关基因上调表达可能是导致‘红心9号’苹果贮藏期间果实硬度显著低于‘红心7号’的主要原因。香气物质种类、含量及其变化能作为果实贮藏品质评价的指标之一。     

不同成熟采收期对清水白桃果实达到完熟时品质的影响(英文)

以软溶质水蜜桃清水白桃为试材,分别在树上完熟的前6、4和2d采样,贮藏于25℃,相对湿度90%的环境条件下至完熟,与树上完熟果实相比较,调查了果实的生理变化、色泽和果汁品质性状,并对完熟果实进行了风味评定。结果表明,贮藏期间的果实乙烯释放量以完熟前2d采收的果实增加最快并在果实完熟时达到最大,树上完熟的果实乙烯释放量最少。树上完熟前6d采收的果实,果皮亮度、果汁的蔗糖含量、“果香型”内酯类物质含量均低于后3次采收的果实,其中以树上完熟前2d采收的果实为最高。相反滴定酸、柠檬酸、天冬酰胺和“清香型”香气物质含量以树上完熟前6d采收的果实最高。完熟果实的风味评定也显示了树上完熟前2d采收的果实综合评价最高,早期采收的果实即使贮藏后达到完熟果肉硬度,甜度和香味少、酸味重。另外,树上完熟的果实肉质粗,酸度低,有怪香味,综合评价不高。