Evolution in crop–livestock integration systems that improve farm productivity and environmental performance in Australia

Australian farming systems have an enduring history of crop–livestock integration which emerged in the face of high climate variability, infertile soils and variable landscapes. Ley farming systems with phases of shorter annual legume pasture phases with cereal crops predominate but, emerging sustainability issues and the need to manage risk is driving ongoing innovation in crop–livestock integration. We discuss the recent evolution of selected innovations that integrate crop and livestock production and their impacts on farm productivity, sustainability and business risk. Dual-purpose use of cereals and canola (Brassica napus) for forage during the vegetative stage while still harvesting for grain is now practiced throughout southern Australia's cropping zone. This practice provides risk management benefits, diversifies crop rotations, reduces pressure on other feed resources and can significantly increase both livestock and crop productivity from farms by 25–75% with little increase in inputs. Sacrificially grazing crops when expected grain yield is low and/or livestock prices are attractive relative to grain provides further flexibility in crop–livestock management systems vital for business risk management in a variable climate. Replacing annual pastures with perennial pasture phases in rotation with crops can provide a range of benefits including improved hydrological balance to reduce dryland salinity, subsoil acidification and water-logging, provide a management tool for herbicide-resistant or problem weeds, improved soil nutrient and carbon stocks as well as increased livestock productivity by filling feed gaps. In some environments, integration of perennial forages in mixtures with cropping, such as alley cropping and inter-cropping, also provide options for improving environmental outcomes. These practices are all innovations that provide flexibility and enable tactical decisions about the mix of enterprises and allocation of land and forage resources to be adjusted in response to climate and price. We discuss these innovations in the context of the emerging constraints to crop–livestock integration in Australia including the continuing decline in labour availability on farms and increasing management skill required to optimise enterprise profitability.     

A survey on actual agricultural practices and their effects on the mineral nitrogen concentration of the soil solution

In intensive integrated crop-livestock farming systems, the surplus of N at the farm scale may be large and reflects on the N balance at the field scale. A study was conducted to assess the N fertilizer efficiency in four private farms in intensively cropped areas of NW Italy, and to monitor the effects of agricultural practices on the mineral N concentration of the soil solution, sampled every 2 weeks for 2 years and considered as an indicator of potential leaching. Two cultivation systems were compared in each farm, one involving continuous maize rotation, the other assuring a continuous soil cover (permanent meadow or winter cereal-maize double cropping system). The fertilization level in the arable crops was high (369–509 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) compared to the crop removals, and resulted in a low efficiency, as indicated by the four examined efficiency indexes (calculated N surplus, N removal-fertilizer ratio, N apparent recovery, N use efficiency). The soil-water-nitrate concentration showed large temporal variations in the range of 1–150 mg l⁻¹ for five out of the eight cropping situations, while concentrations smaller than 10 mg l⁻¹ were always recorded in the meadows and in one of the four soils (Aeric epiaquept). The fertilizer management that characterized each cropping system affected the soil-mineral-nitrate content in shallow arable soils. The longer soil cover duration in double-cropping systems did not result in a reduction of soil N compared to maize as a single crop, not even in winter (the bare-soil intercropping period in maize-based systems). However, the temporal oscillations of the concentration were buffered by the crop cover duration and by the presence of a shallow water table (1 m deep) in the soil profile. The average nitrate content of the soil could be predicted by the N uptake of the crop, the N removal–fertilizer ratio, the soil pH and sand content, however no simple explanatory relationship was found with the experimental factors. Hence, in farm conditions, in the absence of sufficient data for a deterministic model approach, the target of reducing the risk of leaching should be achieved by maximizing the fertilizer efficiency.     

Does the recoupling of dairy and crop production via cooperation between farms generate environmental benefits? A case-study approach in Europe

The intensification of agriculture in Europe has contributed significantly to the decline of mixed crop-livestock farms in favour of specialised farms. Specialisation, when accompanied by intensive farming practices, leaves farms poorly equipped to sustainably manage by-products of production, capture beneficial ecological interactions, and adapt in a volatile economic climate. An often proposed solution to overcome these environmental and economic constraints is to recouple crop and livestock production via cooperation between specialised farms. If well-managed, synergies between crop and livestock production beyond farm level have the potential to improve feed and fertiliser autonomy, and pest regulation. However, strategies currently used by farmers to recouple dairy livestock and crop production are poorly documented; there is a need to better assess these strategies using empirical farm data. In this paper, we employed farm surveys to describe, analyse and assess the following strategies: (1) Local exchange of materials among dairy and arable farms; (2) Land renting between dairy and arable farms; (3) Animal exchanges between lowland and mountainous areas; and (4) Industrially mediated transfers of dehydrated fodder. For each strategy, cooperating farm groups were compared to non-cooperating farm groups using indicators of metabolic performance (input autonomy, nutrient cycling and use efficiency), and ecosystem services provision. The results indicate that recoupling of crop and dairy production through farm cooperation gives farmers access to otherwise inaccessible or underutilised local resources such as land, labour, livestock feed or organic nutrients. This in turn leads to additional outlets for by-products (e.g. animal manure). Farmers’ decisions about how to allocate the additional resources accessed via cooperation essentially determine if the farm diversifies, intensifies or expands operations. The key finding is that in three of the four crop-livestock integration strategies assessed, these newly accessed resources facilitated more intensive farming practices (e.g. higher stocking rate or number of milking cows per hectare) on cooperating dairy farms relative to non-cooperating, specialised dairy farms. As a consequence, cooperation was accompanied by limited environmental benefits but helped to improve resource use efficiency per unit of agricultural product produced. This article provides a critical step toward understanding real-world results of crop-livestock cooperation beyond the farm level relative to within-farm crop-livestock integration. As such, it brings practical knowledge of vital importance for policy making to promote sustainable farming.     

Effects of biogas digestion of clover/grass-leys, cover crops and crop residues on nitrogen cycle and crop yield in organic stockless farming systems

The trend towards specialization in conventional farming led to large agricultural areas in Germany and in Europe lacking livestock. Also stockless organic farming has increased during recent years. In organic farming clover/grass-ley (CG) provides nitrogen (N) to the whole cropping system via symbiotic N₂ fixation and also controls certain weeds. A common practice in organic farming, when ruminants are not present, is to leave the biomass from CG in the field for their residual fertility effect. CG biomass, crop residues (CR) and cover crops (CC) represent a large unexploited energy potential. It could be used by anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. A field experiment was carried out by implementing a whole cropping system with a typical crop rotation for such farming systems on the research station Gladbacherhof from 2002 to 2005. The crop rotation consisted of six crops (two legumes and four non-legume crops). The aim was to evaluate whether the use of N could be improved by processing biomass from CG, CR and CC in a biogas digester and using the effluents as a fertilizer, compared to common practice. In the control treatment, represented by the usual stockless system, the CG, CR and CC biomass were left on the ground for green manure purposes. In the biogas systems these substrates were harvested for digestion in a biogas plant. The effluents of digestion were used to manure the non-legumes in the same crop rotation. Results indicate that digestion of CG, CR and CC can increase the crop dry matter and N yields and the N content of wheat grains in organic stockless systems. Harvesting and digestion of residues and their reallocation after digestion resulted in a better and more even allocation of N within the whole crop rotation, in a higher N input via N₂ fixation and lower N losses due to emissions and probably in a higher N availability of digested manures in comparison to the same amounts of undigested biomass.     

Achieving legislation requirements with different nitrogen fertilization strategies: Results from a long term experiment

The Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC, Anonymous, 1991) was developed in Europe to limit environmental threats from intensive livestock farming and N fertilizer applications to crops. It imposed several rules on farmers and public bodies, one of which was nutrient fertilization plan adoption. Here we use results from the Tetto Frati (Northern Italy) Long-Term Experiment to verify the terms and coefficients in the official Italian guidelines and evaluate the limitations imposed to organic fertilization amounts. For this purpose, we mined long-term experimental data of crop yield, N uptake, N use efficiency, and soil organic matter content from miscellanea cropping systems fertilized with farmyard manure (FYM) and bovine slurry (SLU), typical of a dairy farm in Northern Italy. N fertilization efficiency indicators (Removal to Fertilizer ratio, Apparent Recovery and Nitrogen Fertilizer Replacement Value) indicated that in the long run, FYM behaved similarly to urea, and better than SLU. Even N supply rates as high as 250 kg N ha⁻¹ were justified by high rates of crop removal. In fact, among the terms of the mass-balance equation, SOM mineralization was found to be most relevant, followed by meadow rotation residual effects. We conclude that a revised Nitrates Directives application scheme could be more relaxed in its application limit of manure-N, but should be more ambitious in setting efficiency coefficients for manure fertilization.     

Agroecological principles for the redesign of integrated crop–livestock systems

Combining crops and livestock within integrated crop–livestock systems (ICLS) represents an opportunity to improve the sustainability of farming systems. The objective of this paper is to analyse how agroecological principles can help farmers to redesign and improve the resilience, self-sufficiency, productivity, and efficiency of ICLS. Relying on case studies from Brazil and France, we examine how the transformation of two conventional, specialised systems into more integrated-production systems illustrates the different dynamics towards agroecological ICLS. The French case study, based on self-sufficient farming systems belonging to a sustainable agriculture network, highlights that cost-cutting management led to a win–win strategy comprising good economic and environmental performances. The farms decreased their dependence on external inputs and had only a limited loss of production. The past trajectories of the farms illustrate how increasing the interactions between subsystems improved the self-sufficiency and efficiency of the farms. The Brazilian case study compares slash-and-burn agriculture in the Amazonian region with the recovery of degraded grazing area by ICLS. A small increase in chemical inputs linked to a diversification of productions led to a large increase in production and a large decrease in environmental impacts (deforestation). The Brazilian case study also illustrates how the diversification of production increased the resilience of the system to market shocks. Reconstructing the links among soil, crops, and animals following agroecological principles could improve the different performances of ICLS. New agroecological ICLS, benefiting from diversified productions and increased interactions between subsystems, are likely to offset the trade-off between agricultural production and environmental impacts observed in current ICLS.     

FIELD—A summary simulation model of the soil–crop system to analyse long-term resource interactions and use efficiencies at farm scale

Resources for crop production are often scarce in smallholder farming systems in the tropics, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Decisions on the allocation of such resources are often made at farm rather than at field plot scale. To handle the uncertainty caused by both lack of data and imperfect knowledge inherent to these agricultural systems, we developed a dynamic summary model of the soil–crop system that captures essential interactions determining the short- and long-term crop productivity, while keeping a degree of simplicity that allows its parameterisation, use and dissemination in the tropics. Generic, summary functions describing crop productivity may suffice for addressing questions concerning trade-offs on resource allocation at farm scale. Such functions can be derived from empirical (historical) data or, when they involve potential or water-limited crop yields, can be generated using process-based, detailed crop simulation models. This paper describes the approach to simulating crop productivity implemented in the model FIELD (Field-scale Interactions, use Efficiencies and Long-Term soil fertility Development), based on the availability of light, water, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and the interactions between these factors. We describe how these interactions are simulated and use examples from case studies in African farming systems to illustrate the use of detailed crop models to generate summary functions and the ability of FIELD to capture long-term trends in soil C and crop yields, crop responses to applied nutrients across heterogeneous smallholder farms and the implications of overlooking the effects of intra-seasonal rainfall variability in the model. An example is presented that evaluates the sensitivity of the model to resource allocation decisions when operating (linked to livestock and household models) at farm scale. Further, we discuss the assessment of model performance, going beyond the calculation of simple statistics to compare simulated and observed results to include broader criteria such as model applicability. In data-scarce environments such as SSA, uncertainty in parameter values constrains the performance of detailed process-based models, often forcing model users to ‘guess’ (or set to default values) parameters that are seldom measured in practice. The choice of model depends on its suitability and appropriateness to analyse the relevant scale for the question addressed. Simpler yet dynamic models of the various subsystems (crop, soil, livestock, manure) may prove more robust than detailed, process-based models when analysing farm scale questions on system design and resource allocation in SSA.     

Prospects for ecological intensification of Australian agriculture

World population growth, changing diets and limited opportunities to expand agricultural lands will drive agricultural intensification in the decades ahead. Concerns about the reliance of past agricultural intensification on non-renewable resources, about its negative impacts on natural resources both on and off farm and on greenhouse gas emissions, provide an imperative for future agricultural intensification to become ecologically efficient. We define ecological intensification of agriculture (EIA) as: producing more food per unit resource use while minimising the impact of food production on the environment. Achieving it will require increased precision in the use of inputs and reduction in inefficiencies and losses. It will also require a more holistic view of farming, going beyond efficiencies of single inputs into a single field in a single season to consideration of efficiencies of whole systems over decades. This paper explores the ecological intensification issues facing agricultural production in Australia where opportunities for agricultural intensification are centred on more efficient use of limited and unreliable water resources in both dryland and irrigated agriculture. Ecological efficiencies can be achieved by better matching the supply of nutrients to crops’ requirements both temporally and spatially. This has the added benefit of minimising the opportunities for excessive nutrients to impact on soil health (acidity and dryland salinity) and water quality (pollution of groundwater and eutrophication of lakes and rivers). Opportunities for ecologically efficient intensification are also identified through better integration of crop and livestock enterprises on mixed crop–livestock farms. We define nine desirable attributes of an EIA system: (1) increased agricultural production; (2) efficient use of limited resources; (3) minimal impact on global warming; (4) minimal negative on-site impacts; (5) minimal negative off-site impacts; (6) minimal risk and maximum resilience; (7) preservation of biodiversity in agriculture; (8) preservation of biodiversity in nature and; (9) positive social outcomes. We focus on four technologies and production systems emerging in Australian agriculture: climate risk management; precision agriculture; crop–livestock integration and deficit irrigation. For each of these systems we identify how well they are likely to match the nine desirable attributes of an EIA system. While it seems unlikely that any single technology can satisfy all nine desirable attributes, there is hope that in combination emerging and future technologies will progress Australian agriculture towards greater productivity and ecological efficiency.     

ROTOR,a tool for generating and evaluating crop rotations for organic farming systems

As with conventional farming, the improvement of organic farming systems requires agronomic planning tools to enhance economic performance. Crop rotation planning plays a crucial role in organic arable farming systems due to the renunciation of mineral nitrogen fertilisers and pesticides. Our objective was to develop a tool for generating and evaluating site-specific and agronomically sustainable crop rotations for organic farming systems in central Europe. The resulting static rule-based model, called ROTOR, consists of two basic steps: (A) A set of annual crop production activities (CPAs) is assembled semi-automatically from single site and crop-specific field operations using a relational data base. The database includes all relevant crops recorded separately with inputs and outputs, machinery and timing. Starting from stubble tillage and ending with the last harvest measure, the CPAs describe the current best cropping practices. Different CPAs are included for each crop according to (i) the type of crop preceding and (ii) the field operations following: whether ploughing or non-inverting tillage, undersowing crops, using catch crops, manuring, straw harvesting, or mechanical weed control. The former allows for the modelling of all possible positions of a crop within a crop rotation and the consequential effects of preceding crops. The CPAs are evaluated using rule-based assessment modules for yield, economic performance, N balance, nitrate leaching, and weed infestation risks. These modules have been developed using data from field experiments, farm trials and surveys, expert knowledge and a soil–crop simulation model. (B) Within the crop generation module, all possible sequences of CPAs are linked to 3–8-year preliminary crop rotations. Agronomically sustainable crop rotations are selected according to exclusion criteria (i.e., thresholds for N balance, weed infestation risks, phytosanitary and chronological restrictions) and ranked, e.g. by economic performance. The model was tested by comparing (i) estimated with observed yields and (ii) generated with existing rotations. These comparisons, based on data obtained from two farm surveys from North Eastern Germany, indicate the validity and usability of the model approach. ROTOR was found to support the complex crop rotation planning in organic farming systems requiring rotations with overlapping undersown main and cover crops. ROTOR is able to reduce the risk of planning failures by offering a quantitative method of optimisation of weed and site-specific N management.     

Production, nitrogen and carbon balance of maize-based forage systems

Nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) surplus can be used as indicators of an agroecosystems’ ability to maintain soil fertility. Maize is the key crop of intensive forage systems in northern Italy, and large amounts of manure are often supplied to this crop. Different maize-based cropping systems and manure managements were compared in this paper. The following were assessed, using the results of an 11-year experiment: crop production and N uptakes; C and N surpluses; soil C and N contents. The treatments were maize for silage (Ms), maize for grain (Mg), double annual crop rotation maize–Italian ryegrass (Mr), and rotation maize–grass ley (Ml). Five fertilization management systems were adopted: 0N control, and bovine slurry and farmyard manure supplied at two levels, ranging from 215 to 385 kg ha⁻¹ of total N.

The dry-matter production of Mr was significantly higher than those of the other systems. The response of maize to fertilization was similar in all the cropping systems, except for Mr, for which the crop showed a high reactivity to N input at both fertilizer levels. Soil reserves were rapidly consumed in the unfertilized treatment of Mr, whereas the high productivity potential of this cropping system was exerted in fertilized plots. The introduction of a ley in rotation with maize reduced the system's DM production, due to the low yield potential of grass compared to that of maize, reduced the system response to fertilization, and diminished the exploitation of organic N at high fertilization rates. Cumulated N surplus caused an enrichment of the soil N pool size: 43% of excess N was retained by the soil. The relationship between the cumulated C surplus and the soil C pool size indicated that 26–27% was retained by the soil. Crop residues of the Mg system were less effective in building up the soil C pool than other C sources. Both slurry and farmyard manure exerted a positive effect on the soil C and N retention. When farmyard manure was used, 18% of C and 45% of surplus N were incorporated into the soil organic matter (SOM). Slurry also built up the SOM content, resulting in 9% of C and 24% of N surplus.     

Sustainability of dairy farming system in Tuscany in a changing climate

It is widely accepted that our climate is changing due to the increasing atmospheric concentrations of the ‘greenhouse gases’, and these changes may exercise strong impacts on different economic sectors. In particular for agricultural systems, such a change may have significant impacts on crop yield, cattle breeding and related management practices. Accordingly, the economic viability of agricultural production systems in future scenarios is a main concern especially for policy-making purposes. Up until now, the impact of climate change on agriculture has focused on change in crop yield, whereas a ‘holistic’ approach, considering both benefits (in terms of direct economic income) and detrimental environmental impacts of agricultural practices (soil loss, nitrogen leaching, water balance) has not been considered. On these premises, the objective of the present article was to assess agricultural sustainability on a farm level in Tuscany (central Italy) under the climate change regime, considering both conventional and organic farming systems (CFS and OFS, respectively). In particular, an ecological–economic optimisation model was run for both the present and future scenarios to perform an integrated assessment of sustainability of CFS and OFS on the case-study farm.     

An empirical analysis of risk in conventional and organic arable farming in The Netherlands

This paper assesses and compares risk in conventional and organic arable farming in The Netherlands with respect to family farm income and underlying price and production variables. To investigate the risk factors the farm accountancy data network was used containing unbalanced panel data from 196 conventional and 29 organic representative Dutch arable farms (for the period 2002 up to and including 2011). Variables with regard to price and production risk were identified using a family farm income analysis scheme. Price risk variables are input and output prices, while yield volatility of different crops is the main production risk variable. To assess risk, an error components implicit detrending method was applied and the resulting detrended standard deviations were compared between conventional and organic farms. Results indicate that the risk at the level of family farm income is higher in organic farming. The underlying variables show higher risk for organic farms in crop yields, crop prices and variable input costs per crop.     

Understanding effects of multiple farm management practices on barley performance

Because of the complexity of farming systems, the combined effects of farm management practices on nitrogen availability, nitrogen uptake by the crop and crop performance are not well understood. To evaluate the effects of the temporal and spatial variability of management practices, we used data from seventeen farms and projections to latent structures analysis (PLS) to examine the contribution of 11 farm characteristics and 18 field management practices on barley performance during the period 2009–2012. Farm types were mixed (crop-livestock) and arable and were categorized as old organic, young organic or conventional farms. The barley performance indicators included nitrogen concentrations in biomass (in grain and whole biomass) and dry matter at two growing stages. Fourteen out of 29 farm characteristics and field management practices analysed best explained the variation of the barley performance indicators, at the level of 56%, while model cross-validation revealed a goodness of prediction of 31%. Greater crop diversification on farm, e.g., a high proportion of rotational leys and pasture, which was mostly observed among old organic farms, positively affected grain nitrogen concentration. The highest average grain nitrogen concentration was found in old organic farms (2.3% vs. 1.7 and 1.4% for conventional and young organic farms, respectively). The total nitrogen translocated in grain was highest among conventional farms (80 kg ha⁻¹ vs. 33 and 39 kg ha⁻¹ for young and old organic farms, respectively). The use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides increased biomass leading to significant differences in average grain yield which became more than double for conventional farms (477 ± 24 g m⁻²) compared to organic farms (223 ± 37 and 196 ± 32 g m⁻² for young and old organic farms, respectively). In addition to the importance of weed control, management of crop residues and the organic fertilizer application methods in the current and three previous years, were identified as important factors affecting the barley performance indicators that need closer investigation. With the PLS approach, we were able to highlight the management practices most relevant to barley performance in different farm types. The use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides on conventional farms was related to high cereal crop biomass. Organic management practices in old organic farms increased barley N concentration but there is a need for improved management practices to increase biomass production and grain yield. Weed control, inclusion of more leys in rotation and organic fertilizer application techniques are some of the examples of management practices to be improved for higher N concentrations and biomass yields on organic farms.     

Integrated crop–livestock systems in the Brazilian subtropics

In the subtropical region of Brazil, integrated crop–livestock systems (ICLSs) are characterized by the annual rotation of pastures and crops in a no-till system where the pasture component is used to produce either meat or milk. These systems focus on integration within the farm rather than between farms, being characterized by alternating cropping and pasturing in the same area. Independent of the crop rotations possible in a subtropical environment, the main integrated farming system found was rotation or succession of summer crops (Glycine max, Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris or Oryza sativa) with winter annual grazing grasses (mixed or solely Avena strigosa and Lolium multiflorum) or successive natural pastures.The high variability of crop yield in the Brazilian subtropics (due to climate extremes) as well as associated high costs and low prices has encouraged farmers to integrate livestock into their enterprises as a low-risk diversification option. Long-term experiments have demonstrated the benefits of crop–livestock integration with respect to many aspects of the soil–plant–animal system. There is evidence that such a system is not only a livestock–agriculture combination but also a unique system reaching a new complexity threshold, resulting in emergent properties with novel functionalities, some of which have yet to be investigated. In addition to greater environmental gains with less vulnerability, there are higher yields and more financial gain by the farmer, compared to that in the use of monocultures or non-integrated livestock farming. We conclude that ICLSs in Subtropical Brazil provide the opportunity for intensification with sustainability.     

SIMBA-N: Modeling nitrogen dynamics in banana populations in wet tropical climate. Application to fertilization management in the Caribbean

In banana plantations of the Caribbean, nitrogen (N) fertilization widely exceeds nutrient outputs after harvest. Under wet tropical climate, leaching results in considerable waste of N. Fertilization management aims at maintaining soil mineral N at the optimal level for banana nutrition throughout the year but it does not take into account variations in crop N demand or N supply through mineralization of crop residues. The dynamics of crop N demand and crop residue supply depend on the structure of banana populations, which become asynchronous with time. We designed the SIMBA-N model to simulate N dynamics in successive crop cycles of banana. The model calculates the N balance weekly, including N uptake by banana, N leaching, and N supply by organic matter mineralization. We validated the model using data from a field experiment comparing five levels of fertilization. Results showed SIMBA-N provides reliable indicators to support banana fertilization management taking into account N flows in the soil and change in N demand related to banana population structure.     

不同施肥条件下夏玉米的干物质积累、产量及氮肥利用效率

针对我国华北地区夏玉米生产中所面临的氮素污染和秸秆资源严重浪费等问题，中国农业大学和德国霍恩海姆大学(Hohenheim University of Germany)自1999以来开展了中德国际合作项目“华北平原作物高产高生产力条件下环境可承受的持续农业研究”。研究表明：在同一时期，优化施肥、秸秆还田优化施肥与传统施肥夏玉米干物质积累量无显著性差异。拔节到吐丝，优化施肥的干物质日增长量和干物质积累量并不低于传统施肥，吐丝到灌浆，略低于传统施肥；秸秆还田优化施肥两阶段的干物质日增长量和干物质积累量最高。3处理间夏玉米产量无显著性差异。优化施肥和秸秆还田优化施肥条件下，氮肥当季利用率显著高于传统施肥。     

A new method for analyzing agricultural land-use efficiency,and its application in organic and conventional farming systems in southern Germany

Improving the land-use efficiency (LUE) of farming systems could satisfy increasing global food, feed, biomass and bioenergy demand in a sustainable manner. This study presents a new method for calculating LUE, beginning with an overview of different approaches to assessing agricultural LUE. This new method takes into account the quality and function of agricultural products and the relationship between the yield of the assessed farm and the average yield of the reference region with comparable soils, climate and socio-economic conditions.The new approach was tested using data from long-term experiments at the Scheyern Research Farm in southern Germany, which include different farming systems (organic mixed farming, arable farming, and agroforestry; conventional arable farming and agroforestry). In our case studies, the LUE of conventional systems (arable farming: 1.00; improved arable farming: 1.06; agroforestry: 0.98) was higher than those of the organic systems (mixed farming: 0.69; arable farming: 0.33; agroforestry: 0.43) due to different crop rotations, dry matter yields, and biomass usage (harvest ratio). The conversion of high-input arable farming systems (conventional farming) to agroforestry systems is an extensification with negative effects on the dry matter yield and land-use efficiency. Nevertheless, the conversion to agroforestry systems can increase dry matter yield and land-use efficiency in low-input arable farming systems (organic farming). LUE should be used in combination with agri-environmental indicators, in order to ensure both efficient and sustainable land use.     

不同水氮优化组合模式对冬小麦产量形成及水氮资源利用效率的影响

针对华北平原冬小麦生产中氮肥及灌水存在严重浪费,进而引起环境污染问题进行了研究。在传统灌溉一优化施肥、优化灌溉一传统施肥、优化水肥、秸秆还田优化水肥及传统水肥条件下,冬小麦单位面积收获穗数和子粒产量无显著性差异。优化水肥和秸秆还田优化水肥冬小麦穗粒数显著减少,千粒重显著提高。所有处理间冬小麦水分利用效率无显著性差异。传统灌溉一优化施肥、优化水肥及秸秆还田优化水肥氮肥当季利用率显著提高,因此达到了挖掘冬小麦的节肥潜力,提高优化灌溉条件下氮肥利用效率的目的。     

Optimizing nitrogen use efficiency in wheat and potatoes: interactions between genotypes and agronomic practices

One approach to decrease the environmental impact of crop production and reduce costs is to optimize agronomic practices and genotypes so that nutrients are used more efficiently. In this study the effects of agronomic practices (rotations, crop protection, fertilization) on yields, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and associated parameters were studied in an experiment using two winter wheat genotypes (Cordiale and Scaro) in one season and two potato genotypes (Sarpo Mira and Sante) in two seasons. The wheat showed no varietal differences in yield and NUE; instead the fertilization regime was the main factor affecting yield and NUE with higher values observed when conventional fertilization was used. The exception was for wheat grown after three years grass/clover ley when there was no added yield benefit from conventional fertilization of the organically bred variety (Scaro). This demonstrates the potential for N fixing crops to provide sufficient N to high yielding cereals if grown for long enough prior to planting. The greatest gains in NUE were achieved by combining an N efficient genotype with conventional crop management in an organic rotation. Fertilization and genotypic variation were the main factors affecting potato tuber yield and NUE, with the late maturing Sarpo Mira displaying elevated yields and NUE compared with the early maturing Sante. The use of organic fertility sources resulted in lower NUE, but N release from organic sources may increase NUE of future crops. This highlights the need for long-term nutrient balance and modelling studies to assess NUE at the crop rotation scale.     

Restoration of eroded soil with conservation tillage

Eroded Kandhapludult soils occupy more than 40% of the Southern Piedmont region of the USA. The humid-thermic climate associated with the Ultisols permits double crop residue production ranging from 10 to 14 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Long-term conservation tillage into these crop residues is beneficial in ameliorating the effects of soil erosion. During the course of a five-year study, decomposition of these residues increased soil carbon significantly. Restoration processes were initiated by increasing average soil carbon, representing slight, moderate and severe soil erosion classes, from 0.97 to 2.37% in the 0 to 1.5-cm depth. Accompanying soil carbon responses were increases in soil N, water-stable aggregation and infiltration. Runoff coefficients on conservation tilled restored soils was only 6%, compared to 35% for those conventionally tilled. Rill and interrill soil loss rates were also reduced significantly with surface residue provided with conservation tillage.Restoring Ultisol landscapes with variable levels of soil erosion requires differential fertilization. All fertilizer requirements for severely eroded plots were 1.43 to 2.30-fold higher than those of moderately eroded plots. Because biological N fixation by the crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) cover crop appeared to be retarded on the severely eroded site, observed plant N stress developed on the irrigated/conservation tillage treatment. Cumulative grain yields of severely eroded site, ranged from 15.4 to 30.3 Mg ha⁻¹ 5yr⁻¹, and were statistically equal to or exceeded those of the slightly eroded site. Conservation tillage grain yields were best optimized on the rainfed-moderately eroded site, probably because of the more desirable texture-organic properties of the 13-cm thick Ap horizon. Management of cool-season cover crops with conservation tillage appears essential to restore and sustain crop productivity on eroded Ultisols.