Estimating coarse root biomass with ground penetrating radar in a tree-based intercropping system

Conventional measurements of tree root biomass in tree-based intercropping (TBI) systems can be inadequate in capturing the heterogeneity of rooting patterns or can be highly destructive and non-repeatable. In this study, we estimated coarse root biomass using ground penetrating radar (GPR) of 25-year-old trees inclusive of five species (Populus deltoides × nigra clone DN-177, Juglans nigra L., Quercus rubra L., Picea abies L. Karst, and Thuja occidentalis L.) at a TBI site in Southern Ontario, Canada. Subsurface images generated by GPR were collected in grids (4.5 × 4.5 m) centred on tree stems. The predictive relationship developed between GPR signal response and root biomass was corrected for species effects prior to tree-scale estimates of belowground biomass. Accuracy of the tree-scale estimates was assessed by comparing coarse root biomass measured from complete excavations of the corresponding tree. The mean coarse root biomass estimated from GPR analysis was 54.1 ± 8.7 kg tree^?1 (mean ± S.E.; n = 12), within 1 % of the mean coarse root biomass measured from excavation. Overall there was a root mean square error of 14.4 kg between measured and estimated biomass with no detectable bias despite variable conditions within the in-field and multi-species study. Root system C storage by species, calculated with species-specific root carbon concentrations, is estimated at 5.4 ± 0.7–34.8 ± 6.9 kg C tree^?1 at this site. GPR is an effective tool for non-destructively predicting coarse root biomass in multi-species environments such as temperate TBI systems.     

基于探地雷达的根系探测对土壤含水量的响应

在探地雷达对地下根系进行探测和识别的过程中,土壤含水量是影响根系探测效果的一个极为重要的因素.本文在2种质地土壤(砂质壤土和粘土)不同水分含量下,通过探地雷达对根进行模拟试验,测定了2种质地土壤的电磁波波速,同时测试了根的探测效果.结果表明:土壤含水量是影响电磁波波速的主要因素,电磁波波速不受天线频率的影响,但随着土壤...     

Detection of tree roots and determination of root diameters by ground penetrating radar under optimal conditions

A tree's root system accounts for between 10 and 65% of its total biomass, yet our understanding of the factors that cause this proportion to vary is limited because of the difficulty encountered when studying tree root systems. There is a need to develop new sampling and measuring techniques for tree root systems. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) offers the potential for direct nondestructive measurements of tree root biomass and root distributions to be made. We tested the ability of GPR, with 500 MHz, 800 MHz and 1 GHz antennas, to detect tree roots and determine root size by burying roots in a 32 m3 pit containing damp sand. Within this test bed, tree roots were buried in two configurations: (1) roots of various diameters (1-10 cm) were buried at a single depth (50 cm); and (2) roots of similar diameter (about 5 cm) were buried at various depths (15-155 cm). Radar antennas were drawn along transects perpendicular to the buried roots. Radar profile normalization, filtration and migration were undertaken based on standard algorithms. All antennas produced characteristic reflection hyperbolas on the radar profiles allowing visual identification of most root locations. The 800 MHz antenna resulted in the clearest radar profiles. An unsupervised, maximum-convexity migration algorithm was used to focus information contained in the hyperbolas back to a point. This resulted in a significant gain in clarity with roots appearing as discrete shapes, thereby reducing confusion due to overlapping of hyperbolas when many roots are detected. More importantly, parameters extracted from the resultant waveform through the center of a root correlated well with root diameter for the 500 MHz antenna, but not for the other two antennas. A multiple regression model based on the extracted parameters was calibrated on half of the data (R2 = 0.89) and produced good predictions when tested on the remaining data. Root diameters were predicted with a root mean squared error of 0.6 cm, allowing detection and quantification of roots as small as 1 cm in diameter. An advantage of this processing technique is that it produces results independently of signal strength. These waveform parameters represent a major advance in the processing of GPR profiles for estimating root diameters. We conclude that enhanced data analysis routines combined with improvements in GPR hardware design could make GPR a valuable tool for studying tree root systems.     

Bamboo hedgerow systems in Kerala, India: Root distribution and competition with trees for phosphorus

In a field study on bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.) hedgerow systems of Kerala, we tested the following three hypotheses: (1) Effective root foraging space is a function of crown spread, (2) Proximity of trees depress lateral spread of roots in mixed species systems and (3) The closer the trees are located the greater will be the subsoil root activity which in turn facilitates active absorption of nutrients from deeper layers of the soil profile. Root distribution of boundary planted bamboo and root competition with associated trees in two binary mixtures, teak (Tectona grandis)-bamboo and Malabar white pine (Vateria indica)-bamboo, were evaluated using modified logarithmic spiral trenching and ³²P soil injection techniques respectively. Excavation studies indicate that rooting intensity declined linearly with increasing lateral distance. Larger clumps manifested wider foraging zones. Eighty three per cent of the large clumps (>4.0 m dia.) extended roots beyond 8 m while only 33% of the small (<2.5 m dia.) clumps extended roots up to 8 m. Highest root counts were found in the 10–20 cm layer with nearly 30% of total roots. Although nearness of bamboo clumps depressed root activity of teak and Vateria in the surface layers of the soil profile, root activity in the deeper layers was stimulated. ³²P recovery was higher when applied at 50-cm depth than at 25-cm depth implying the safety net role of tree roots for leached down nutrients. Inter specific root competition can be regulated by planting crops 8–9 m away from the bamboo clumps and/or by canopy reduction treatments. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Growth of Young Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) and the Effect of Simulated Browsing, Staking and Treeshelters

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) 1 + 1 transplantswere grown at 1 x 1 m for 3 years with 100 per cent chemicalweed control on a very fertile site. Treatments were control,firm staking, staked with 15 cm diameter netting with simulatedbrowsing, staked with simulated browsing to 15 cm diameter crown,1.2 m treeshelter, 1.2 treeshelter with holes and no browsing.No leaders were browsed. Trees were assessed for annual heightgrowth, stem diameter at 0.5 m and 1.0 m, total above and belowground biomass, root:shoot ratio, root plate diameter, rootdepth and root volume. No 3-year heights were significantlydifferent but third-year increments were; the greatest finalheight was in the control at 200.7 cm. All other tree parametershad significant treatment differences demonstrating the needto select carefully the criteria of success in experiments.Treatments which restricted the horizontal development of thecanopy either physically or by simulated browsing seriouslyreduced stem diameter and root development. The controls hada root:shoot ratio of 0.418; treeshelter treatments had thesmallest root:shoot ratio of 0.238; staked trees were 0.379while staked browsed trees had the highest value at 0.447. Acceptanceof browsing or use of shelters or guards to protect trees frombrowsing may seriously reduce growth.     

互助县古树名木资源调查及其保护对策

为加强古树名木资源的保护管理,采用GPS定位、文献跟踪、资料收集、现地鉴定、数码拍照等方法,2010-2018年在青海省互助县开展古树名木资源调查和评价。结果表明:(1)2010-2018年增或减古树名木数量没有变化,共有55株古树,全部为三级保护古树。以青杨、青海云杉居多,占总株数的90.91%。(2)古树名木全部以散生状态分布在乡村,4株为国家所有、48株为集体所有、3株为个人所有。(3)古树名木生长环境全部为中等,生长正常的有40株、衰弱的有15株。(4)古树名木树龄分布范围在108~288a,平均154a;树高分布范围在9~36m,平均20m;胸围/地围分布范围在150~740cm,平均364cm;冠幅分布范围在5~25m,平均16m。(5)2018比2010年树高增加了2m、胸围/地围增加了2cm、平均冠幅增加了2m。最后提出了古树名木资源保护管理的有关建议。     

Competitive interaction in a jujube tree/wheat agroforestry system in northwest China’s Xinjiang Province

The jujube tree (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.)/wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) agroforestry system is frequently used in China’s Xinjiang Province. The system improves land-use efficiency and increases economic returns. A field experiment was conducted at the Hetian oasis in southern Xinjiang Province to investigate the relationship between root distribution and interspecific interaction between the two intercropped species. The study included seven treatments: sole-cropped 5, 7, or 9-year-old jujube trees (treatments 1–3); 5, 7, or 9-year-old jujube trees intercropped with wheat (treatments 4–6); and sole-cropped wheat (treatment 7). To determine vertical root distribution, soil cores were collected in 20-cm increments from the 0 to 100-cm soil depth. The cores were collected at horizontal distances of 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 cm from the jujube rows. The results showed that the land equivalent ratios were >1 for the three jujube/wheat intercropping systems. This indicated that these systems were advantageous compared with sole cropping. Tree height, breast height diameter, and mean crown radius were less in the intercropped treatments than in the corresponding sole-cropped treatments. Intercropping reduced the root length densities (RLDs) and root diameters (RDs) of both jujube and wheat at all soil depths. The RLD and RD of 9-year-old jujube trees were greater than those of the 5- and 7-year-old trees, which indicated that the root systems of the 9-year-old trees were more developed. Wheat root growth was inhibited more by older jujube trees than by younger ones. In conclusion, jujube tree/wheat intercropping can be practical and beneficial in the region. However, the mechanisms involved in the belowground interspecific interactions are still unknown. Additional research is needed to provide optimal management strategies and technologies for jujube/wheat intercropping.     

Structural root growth of young Veronese poplars on erodible slopes in the southern North Island,New Zealand

In New Zealand poplars are commonly planted on moist, unstable pastoral hill country to prevent or reduce soil erosion, thereby maintaining hillslope integrity and pasture production. Mechanical reinforcement by poplar root systems aids slope stabilisation. Root mass and distribution were determined for three Populus deltoides × nigra ‘Veronese’ trees aged 5, 7 and 9.5 year planted as 3 m poles at 8 m × 8 m spacing on a hillslope near Palmerston North in the southern North Island. Most of the structural roots (≥2 mm diameter) were distributed in the top 40 cm of soil. Vertical roots penetrated to about 1.0 m, being the depth of the soil above a fragipan. Total structural root dry masses (excluding root crown) were 0.57, 7.8 and 17.90 kg for the trees aged 5, 7 and 9.5 year, respectively. Total structural root length was 79.4 m for the 5 year tree and 663.5 m for the 9.5 year tree. Surrounding trees were estimated to increase root mass density to 3 times and root length density to 4–5 times the contribution of the single tree at 9.5 year. The study indicated that root development of wide-spaced poplar trees on hillslopes was minimal in the first 5 years but then increased rapidly. These results suggest that poplar trees established from poles may take at least 5 years to develop a structural root network that will effectively bind soil.     

黄土区退耕地隔坡水平沟整地对核桃生长发育的影响

隔坡水平沟整地技术显著地促进了旱坡地核桃幼树的生长发育,6年生核桃地径平均达6.12 cm,树高221 cm,冠幅245.5 cm×238.3 cm,新梢长85 cm,新梢粗1.82 cm,核桃生长迅速的特性得到了充分体现。剖根试验表明,1年生核桃幼树根系水平分布达119 cm~126 cm,垂直分布达60 cm~65 cm,水平根条数达14条~15条;3年生时,根系水平分布已达到143 cm~156 cm,根系最大分布范围已经交接;6年生时,根系已经向下延伸至4 m以下的坡面。幼树期产量迅速上升,7年生时平均产量达2.56 kg/株,1 728 kg/hm2,达到了盛果期产量的57.6%.     

Electrical measurement of tree root absorbing surfaces by the earth impedance method: 2. Verification based on allometric relationships and root severing experiments

We validated, by means of allometric relationships and root severing experiments, the modified earth impedance method developed for measuring absorbing root surfaces. For the allometric studies, a series of 350 small and large trees of six broadleaf and coniferous species in several experimental sites was examined. We found a good linear ln-ln fit between absorbing root surface area and basal area (or stem cross-sectional area at the root collar in seedlings) over a range of stem diameters from 0.5-55 cm. The absorbing root surface area also changed consistently with crown projected area and the root-accessed area (territory) of the tree. At the whole-tree level, absorbing root surface area reached about 70 times that of basal area and 40% of crown projected area, or roughly 1/3 of the root-accessed area in Norway spruce (in this species, the ratio was relatively larger in small trees and smaller in large trees). The absorbing root surfaces of mechanically severed parts of Norway spruce root systems changed in about the same proportions as the geometrically determined parts of the severed root systems. These results are promising and support field applications of the method in biological and ecological studies.     

Analyses of stand structure as a tool for silvicultural decisions — a case study in a Quercus petraea — Sorbus torminalis stand

The study applies structural indices using the example of an oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) — chequer tree (Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz) stand in order to derive recommendations for the silvicultural treatment of Chequer trees. The investigated stand, located in the northern part of Bavaria, comprises eight tree species and four shrub species. Various indices were used to analyse the stand structure and the crown coverage frequency. It was shown that chequer trees, which are presently of high economic interest, are strongly oppressed in the upper layer and almost completely missing in the lower layers of the stand. The possible reasons for this finding and alternatives for the further management of the stand are discussed. Persistent and repeated thinnings in order to ensure sufficient crown development of the chequer trees seem to be essential for their survival.     

Coordination of crown structure, leaf plasticity and carbon gain within the crowns of three winter-deciduous mature trees

We examined the vertical profiles of leaf characteristics within the crowns of two late-successional (Fagus crenata Blume and Fagus japonica Maxim.) and one early-successional tree species (Betula grossa Sieb. et Zucc.) in a Japanese forest. We also assessed the contributions of the leaves in each crown layer to whole-crown instantaneous carbon gain at midday. Carbon gain was estimated from the relationship between electron transport and photosynthetic rates. We hypothesized that more irradiance can penetrate into the middle of the crown if the upper crown layers have steep leaf inclination angles. We found that such a crown has a high whole-crown carbon gain, even if leaf traits do not change greatly with decreasing crown height. Leaf area indices (LAIs) of the two Fagus trees (5.26-5.52) were higher than the LAI of the B. grossa tree (4.50) and the leaves of the F. crenata tree were more concentrated in the top crown layers than were leaves of the other trees. Whole-crown carbon gain per unit ground area (micromol m(-2) ground s(-1)) at midday on fine days in summer was 16.3 for F. crenata, 11.0 for F. japonica, and 20.4 for B. grossa. In all study trees, leaf dry mass (LMA) and leaf nitrogen content (N) per unit area decreased with decreasing height in the crown, but leaf N per unit mass increased. Variations (plasticity) between the uppermost and lowermost crown layers in LMA, leaf N, the ratio of chlorophyll to N and the ratio of chlorophyll a to b were smaller for F. japonica and B. grossa than for F. crenata. The light extinction coefficients in the crowns were lower for the F. japonica and B. grossa trees than for the F. crenata tree. The leaf carbon isotope ratio (delta(13)C) was higher for F. japonica and B. grossa than for F. crenata, especially in the mid-crown. These results suggest that, in crowns with low leaf plasticity but steep leaf inclination angles, such as those of F. japonica and B. grossa trees, irradiance can penetrate into the middle of the crowns, thereby enhancing whole-crown carbon gain.     

Maturation, topophysis and other factors in relation to rooting in Larix

We examined effects of mist quantity, topophysis (origin of cutting in the crown of 6-year-old trees), maturation state of the donor stock, and time of sticking on rooting and root system quality of cuttings representing five full-sib hybrid larch families obtained with Larix decidua Mill., L. laricina (du Roi) K. Koch, and L. kaempferi (Lamb.) Sarg. (Sieb. and Zucc.) Gord., as parents. Mist frequency, supplemental watering and family all had highly significant effects on percentage of cuttings rooting and root system quality. The high-frequency misting regime yielded both higher rooting percentages and higher quality root systems than the low-frequency regime without supplemental watering. Supplemental watering of the rooting medium in the low-frequency misting regime increased both percent rooting and root system quality to values comparable with those obtained by cuttings in the high-frequency misting regime. Rooting of cuttings from the top, middle and bottom whorls of 5-year-old plantation grown trees tended to decline with increasing height for three of the five families. Overall, height of cutting origin did not significantly affect rooting, but when analyzed separately, two families exhibited a significant decline in rooting toward the top of the trees. Age of donor ortet (ranging from 1 to 7 years) significantly affected both percent rooting and root system quality. Rooting percentages declined linearly with age, and root system quality declined more sharply than percent rooting. The relatively poor root system quality of cuttings from ortets older than 1 year was closely associated with plagiotropic growth. Softwood cuttings (stuck in mid-July) rooted better than hardwood cuttings (stuck in early September) across all families.     

Feinwurzelmasse und Mykorrhiza von Altbuchen (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Waldschadensgebieten Bayerns

Feeder root biomass and mycorrhizae of old beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.) in bavarian forest die-back areas . The feeder root biomass (roots = 2 mm diameter) and the quantity of mycorrhizae of apparently healthy and diseased old beech trees were determined in 7 stands in Bavaria. Canopy die-back correlated with reduction of the feeder root biomass and of mycorrhizae in the topsoil. In the deeper layers of the soil (below 50 cm) there were nearly no differences between the decline classes lor these parameters. The feeder root damage described were encountered in all stand types. For that reason, such damage can be considered, at least for comparable stands, as a general symptom of above ground diseased old beech trees.     

Components of Tree Stability in Sitka Spruce on Peaty Gley Soil

The stability of 20 m tall trees was investigated by pullingthem over with a winch. The turning moment at the stem basewas resolved into two components, one due to the applied force,and the other to the horizontally displaced weight of the stemand crown. Vertical displacement of the root-soil system wasmeasured and observations made of the progressive failure ofthe soil around and underneath the root-soil plate. When trees were pulled from the crown region, the soil failedwhen the crown had deflected c. 4 rn horizontally and when theapplied force wasonly about 70% of that required for uprooting.By the time that the maximum turning moment at the stem basedue to the applied force had been reached, many roots had broken,crown deflection was c. 8 m and the deflected weight of thestem and crown made a substantial contribution to the uprootingforces. By repeatedly pulling trees during a sequence of cutting orbreaking the roots and soil, the total resistive turning momentafforded by the anchorage was resolved into the following components:i. soil resistance (the resistance to uprooting afforded bythe soil underneath and at the sides of the root system); ii.the resistance of roots placed under tension on the windwardperimeter; iii. the weight of the root-soil plate; and iv. resistanceto bending at the hinge on the leeside. The importance of these components varied between trees andchanged during the course of uprooting. Soil resistance wasthe largest component in the early stages, but when the turningmoment due to the applied force was maximal, the componentsof anchorage were in the order windward roots < weight <hinge < soil resistance. The major effect of the windwardroots on anchorage in these shallow root systems highlightsthe importance of features which interfere with their lateraldevelopment, such as the furrows produced by spaced ploughing.     

窄冠刺槐根系的研究

2006年10月用全挖法和分层分段挖掘法,研究了窄冠刺槐根系的分布特征、根系生物量以及不同密度林分根系空间分布特征.结果表明:窄冠刺槐个体根系水平分布在株间可达到6.6 m,在行间可达到5.0 m;主根可深达2 m以上,侧根垂直分布集中在10～40 cm土层内.窄冠刺槐根系生物量占全株生物量的16.82％,主根、侧根的生物量在根系生物量中分别占87.13％、12.87％.窄冠刺槐林分根系生物总量和根总长分别为6 160.2～10 940.55kg·hm-2和970.35～1 607.4 km·hm-2,并呈现出根系生物总量和根总长与林分密度成正相关的规律.在垂直方向上,林分根系中直径D<15 mm的根主要分布在地下0～20 cm土层内,而直径D≥15 mm的根主要分布在地下20～40 cm土层内;在水平方向上,直径D≥5 mm的根数量随距树干距离增加而减少,而直径D<1 mm的根数量则随距树干距离增大而增大,主要集中分布在距树干0.5～1.5 m范围内.     

秃杉第1代无性系种子园营建技术研究

总结了德化葛坑国有林场2009年营建的秃杉第1代无性系种子园的营建技术,并于2012年5月对建园效果进行调查分析.结果表明:砧木保存率为89.4％,嫁接保存率为86.9％,嫁接植株的正冠率为82.3％;2010年嫁接的植株平均树高、地径和冠幅分别为1.2m、3.1 cm、0.8m,最优株树高1.8m、胸径1.6 cm、冠幅1.3m.     

不同柳叶栎种源生长性状的测定与分析

对从美国引进的6 a生柳叶栎9个种源的生长性状进行测定分析,结果表明不同种源的树高、胸径、分枝数、分枝角和枝下高均存在显著差异,而冠幅并未达到显著差异水平.生长最好的19号种源的平均树高、胸径和冠幅分剐为2.4 m、6 cm、1.64 m,是最差的22号种源的1.14倍、1.3倍和1.12倍.依据多性状选择指数,初步筛选出19号、18号和23号等3个生长表现优良的种源.     

Detecting defects in conifers with ground penetrating radar: applications and challenges

Our objective was to test ground penetrating radar (GPR) to non‐destructively estimate decay volumes in living coniferous trees. GPR is geophysical tool which uses an antenna to propagate short bursts of electromagnetic energy in solid materials and measure the two‐way travel time and amplitude of reflected signals. We compared estimates of bole decay from data collected with a SIR 3000 GPR system equipped with a 900 MHz antenna to measurements of decay from stem cross sections and increment cores for three conifer species (Pseudotsuga menziesii, Thuja plicata and Tsuga heterophylla). We found that near‐surface decay, air‐filled voids and desiccated boles had unique electromagnetic signatures, which could be separated from other defects. GPR successfully estimated the percent area of air‐filled cavities and was not significantly different than results from destructive sampling. However, separation of incipient to severe decay from benign reflectors (e.g. moisture gradient between sapwood and heartwood) in conifers was much less diagnostic than with angiosperms. A limited assessment of Acer saccharum showed that GPR has potential to detect defects in angiosperms; however, more research is needed to outline the full range of detectable defects. Based on the trees in this study, the potential for GPR to detect decay‐related defects in conifers seems limited. Despite problems detecting decay, reflections originating from the sapwood : heartwood boundary may prove useful to determine thickness of functional sapwood in conifers, but accurate quantification will require further technical development.     

The effect of cultivation technique on root architecture of young Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) trees on surface water gleys

The research on the impact of soil cultivation/drainage practices upon root architecture of young Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) trees reported in this article was carried out in the period from 1995 to 1997. A total of 279 trees between five and eight years of age were excavated on three sites in the mid-west of Ireland. The general soil type was surface water gley. Horizontal and vertical root spread was found to be related to the size of the tree. Larger trees in the machine mound and mole and mound treated plots tended to have greater root spread compared to the smaller trees in the moled and uncultivated plots. Between the two sampling periods in 1995 (at the age of 5 years) and 1997 (at the age of 7 or 8 years) the percentage root distribution decreased close to the root stock and increased further out. However, at all three sites very little of the root cross sectional area was found beyond 60 cm from the root stock in either the vertical or the horizontal directions, even after 7 growing seasons. Generally the location of the centre of gravity of the tree root systems was not affected by cultivation treatment, nor was it found to differ significantly from the ideal co-ordinates of (0,0). Therefore, most of the root systems appeared to be symmetrical.