Eucalypt plantations as habitat for birds on previously cleared farmland in south-eastern Australia

In parts of Australia, extensive areas of cleared land are now being planted with commercial plantations of native eucalypts. Questions arise about the extent to which such plantations can rectify previous loss of habitat and contribute to biodiversity conservation. This study assessed abundance of bird species (as one aspect of biodiversity) on 105 sites (25 cleared land, 58 plantations and 22 native forest) in two regions of rural Victoria, south-eastern Australia. Generalised linear modelling was used to assess some of the landscape and habitat variables that contributed to the value of plantation sites for particular groups of bird species. These models demonstrated the importance of on-site habitat variables in explaining the abundance of groups of bird species, with landscape context making small additional contributions.Mean abundance of forest and woodland birds was higher in eucalypt plantations than cleared farmland, and marginally lower than in native forest. Patterns differed between bird guilds. For example, insectivores that forage in the canopy and tall shrub layers were at least as common in plantations as in native forest, with birds in the latter group using young eucalypts as if they were tall shrubs. Birds that forage from open ground among trees were more common in plantations than native forest, and may benefit substantially from the new habitat fortuitously provided for them. This group includes several species that have declined in natural woodland habitats. Nectarivores, carnivores and birds that forage among low shrubs were less common in plantations than in native forest. Insectivores that forage from eucalypt bark made little use of plantations. Different approaches to plantation design and management would be needed to cater for groups such as these. Specific measures include planting of rough-barked eucalypts in addition to smooth-barked species, and provision of artificial hollows. Retention of existing remnants of native forest (e.g. old trees and forest patches) is a priority, to supply habitat elements that would otherwise be missing for long periods.     

The value of forest strips for understorey birds in an Amazonian plantation landscape

Remnant forest strips are frequently proposed as valuable conservation tools in fragmented tropical landscapes, yet we currently lack evidence to evaluate their potential conservation value for native biota. We examined the potential value for understorey forest birds of 30-year-old riparian and terra firme (unflooded) primary forest strips within a large silvicultural landscape in the north-east Brazilian Amazon, where the matrix is dominated by Eucalyptus plantations. We conducted mist-netting in eight forest strips connected to continuous forest (four of each forest type), with a total of 24 replicate sampling sites located near to (<1 km), far from (2.5-9 km), and within undisturbed forest controls (i.e. 16 samples within the strips, and 8 in controls). Bird communities in both strip types changed with increasing distance along forest remnants into the plantation matrix. Matrix-embedded samples were characterised by a higher representation of birds typical of secondary growth forest but not those typical of the Eucalyptus-dominated matrix. While the long-term viability of the bird populations in these remnants remains unclear, our data demonstrate that forest strips can provide important habitat for many bird species that are otherwise rarely found outside primary forest. Forest strips therefore provide an important tool to enhance biodiversity conservation in plantation landscapes. The relative practical ease with which these areas can be selected and maintained means that the protection of forest strips as part of a wider conservation strategy is likely to have particular appeal to policy makers and landscape managers working in the human-dominated tropics.     

Regrowth and revegetation in temperate Australia presents a conservation challenge for reptile fauna in agricultural landscapes

Secondary vegetation, associated with changes in land use, presents a conservation issue in the preservation of biological diversity in agricultural landscapes. We examine the interactive effect of eucalypt regrowth and rock habitat on reptile species richness and assemblage structure in fragmented agricultural landscapes in south-eastern Australia. Zoogeographic and geomorphic factors influenced species richness and community composition. Saxicolous and arboreal species were less abundant in grassy woodland regrowth, whereas Bassian and fossorial species responded positively to forest regrowth (and tree plantings). Regrowth with rock habitat had higher reptile richness, and more old growth-associated taxa, than regrowth without rock habitat. Thus, the presence of saxicolous habitat can reduce the time required for regrowth to attain a climax community structure and elements of old growth fauna. However, in the absence of vegetation management, secondary vegetation can reduce habitat suitability for a broad range of reptiles. In agricultural landscapes historically supporting savannah-like vegetation, habitat manipulation may be necessary to maintain reptile diversity. Furthermore, tree plantings in temperate agricultural landscapes should aim to restore historical vegetation composition and structure, thereby reflecting the habitat requirements of extant species and facilitating evolutionary processes. In grassy woodland ecosystems, this may involve heterogeneous plantings which emulate natural levels of canopy cover and solar penetration. Maintaining biodiversity in agricultural landscapes will therefore involve managing trade-offs to preserve areas of dense regeneration for regrowth-dependant fauna, while at the same time, creating open-canopy environments to enhance habitat for ectothermic organisms.     

Plantation rows as dispersal routes: A test with didelphid marsupials in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil

Anecdotal observations suggest that some vertebrates follow plantation rows when crossing between habitat patches in fragmented landscapes, but the frequency of such behavior was never formally tested despite its potential implications for landscape management. We experimentally tested if the didelphid marsupials Didelphis aurita and Philander frenatus use plantation rows as guidelines when searching for habitat patches in a landscape of fragmented Atlantic Forest in Brazil. Thirty-seven individuals of P. frenatus and 24 of D. aurita were captured in forest fragments and released carrying spool-and-line tracking devices at four distances (30-200 m) from a forest fragment, in a matrix of manioc plantations. Animals of both species used plantation rows to orient their initial movements and used rows as guidelines along their paths for navigating in the matrix. By moving predominantly parallel to the plantation rows animals reduced the tortuosity of their paths and obtained an unobstructed view of the landscape ahead. These results demonstrate that the orientation of linear plantations can strongly influence functional connectivity between habitat fragments. Plantation rows should be oriented to maximize connection between nearby fragments, enhancing dispersal success of these species and probably many other terrestrial vertebrates in agricultural landscapes.     

Landscape change and the science of biodiversity conservation in tropical forests: A view from the temperate world

Using a largely temperate forest perspective, this article briefly reviews four often inter-related types of landscape change which can have significant impacts on tropical and temperate forest biodiversity: logging, fire, forest clearing, and plantation expansion. There are many important similarities but also key differences in the kinds of work conducted on these four kinds of landscape change in tropical and temperate forests. For example, direct studies of the effects of forest conversion on biodiversity are relatively rare in both tropical and temperate ecosystems. Temperate forest research differs from tropical research in terms of relative amount of single species work, long-term studies, and research at scales spanning multiple landscapes. There are key areas for cross-fertilization of research in tropical and temperate forest biomes. These include: (1) the ability of species to persist in post-disturbed forest landscapes, including those perturbed by past clearing, logging or wildfire, (2) the impacts of plantation establishment on biodiversity, (3) the effectiveness of altered silvicultural systems on forest structure, vegetation composition, and biota, and (4) inter-relationships between forest logging and fire-proneness. Cross-learning about the impacts of drivers of landscape change between tropical and temperate forests is fundamental for speeding the progress of conservation efforts in both broad kinds of environments. However, some opportunities for cross-learning have not been taken because temperate and tropical forest research has often sometimes been isolated from one another. Some approaches to tackle this problem are briefly outlined.     

Native vegetation cover thresholds associated with species responses

We examined data on bird and reptile assemblages in a plantation landscape in southern New South Wales, south-eastern Australia, for evidence of threshold responses to the amount of native eucalypt vegetation in circular areas of 2000 and/or 1000 m around field survey sites. These circular areas contained varying proportions of native Eucalyptus and exotic radiata pine Pinus radiata forest thereby providing a basis for examining potential threshold effects in relation to the area of native vegetation cover. For bird species richness or the probability of detection of individual bird species we found no empirical evidence of a threshold response to the area of native vegetation cover, or any other potential explanatory variables. All relationships were characterised by considerable variability in the response data. “Broken-stick” relationships which involved sudden change points did not fit the response data better than smooth relationships obtained from generalised additive or linear models. As with birds, there was no evidence that a threshold model between lizard richness and the amount of native vegetation within 1000 m described the relationship any better than a smooth, continuous or other type of relationship. Several related factors may explain our results. An important one is that species-specific responses to landscape conditions mean that marked thresholds will not be seen for an aggregate measure like species richness at a given value for a given landscape variable. Another is that factors other than the amount of native vegetation may significantly influence underlying patterns of species occurrence. This highlights a need to be aware of the potential effects of various ecological processes, even when a substantial amount of native vegetation cover remains.Our findings do not rule out the possibility of the existence of threshold relationships. However, irrespective of the choice of measure of predictor variable (e.g., the amount of native vegetation cover), it will often be difficult to detect and estimate threshold responses due to high inherent variability - a characteristic of the vast majority of ecological datasets. Furthermore, even if it is possible to estimate functional (threshold) forms and although they might be useful from an explanatory perspective, in most instances they are likely to be of limited value in a predictive sense. This calls into question the practical significance of the threshold concept.     

Effects of vegetation removal on soil properties and decomposer organisms

The removal of understory vegetation has been a common forest management practice, especially in plantations, but the effects of understory removal on soil physico-chemical properties and decomposer organisms is poorly known. In the present study, the effects of understory vegetation removal and removal of all-plants (i.e. removal of understory vegetation and trees) on soil properties and soil biota were measured in a plantation of mixed native tree species in southern China. During the wet season, understory vegetation removal did not cause significant changes on soil microbial community and major soil faunal groups except for a marked reduction in the density of herbivorous nematodes. However, all-plants removal significantly decreased the fungal biomass, the fungal:bacterial ratio, the density of herbivorous nematodes, the structure of the nematode community, and the density of mites, collembola and total microarthropods. In the dry season, understory vegetation removal resulted in a marked reduction in the density of total and herbivorous nematodes. The effects of plant removal on soil biota were similar to that in dry season. For both seasons, understory removal had no significant effects on soil physico-chemical properties (soil water content, pH, total nitrogen and soil organic carbon) but removal of all-plants significantly decreased soil pH. In general, the effects of understory vegetation removal on soil biota and other soil properties were much less severe than those of all-plants removal. The soil biota did not show significant response to understory removal, suggesting that this part of the vegetation may not be a major governing factor on such biota.     

陕北安塞不同林龄刺槐林下幼苗更新的动态变化特征

为了探讨黄土丘陵沟壑区刺槐林下幼苗更新的动态变化特征,进而为黄土高原地区人工刺槐林生态恢复与功能提升提供参考依据,在陕北安塞纸坊沟流域不同林龄(10 a,20 a,30 a,40 a)的刺槐林下共设置8个典型样地作为研究对象,调查分析林下幼苗的物种组成、密度及月动态变化特征。结果表明:(1)幼苗和地上植物间相似性系数表现为10 a>20 a>40 a>30 a,都以菊科、禾本科、豆科为主,生活型以多年生草本和一年生草本植物为主。(2)4—10月间,不同林龄林下均有大量刺槐幼苗萌发; 随林龄增加,林下幼苗更新过程各异,10 a林以狗尾草、猪毛菜幼苗为主,20 a林以猪毛菜、臭草、狗尾草、裂叶堇菜幼苗为主,30 a林以长芒草、裂叶堇菜幼苗为主,40 a林以翠雀、榆树幼苗为主。(3)随林龄增加,幼苗物种数与密度均呈降低趋势; 幼苗种类在4月、6月、9月较多; 幼苗密度在4月和6月相对较高。(4)林下草本植物幼苗大多数存活时间短; 在刺槐林恢复初期(10年),田旋花幼苗容易建植成功; 在刺槐林恢复的中、后期(20 a,30 a,40 a),裂叶堇菜、臭草、长芒草幼苗容易建植成功。因此,在陕北黄土高原丘陵沟壑区,根据刺槐林的恢复时期及林下不同物种幼苗存活特性对幼苗进行合理地抚育管理,促进林下植被的恢复与更新。     

Can plantations develop understory biological and physical attributes of naturally regenerated forests?

With an increasing proportion of natural forests being replaced by plantations, there is a need to determine their potential to fulfill ecological purposes other than wood production. This study evaluated the extent to which deciduous and coniferous plantations develop understory attributes comparable to those of naturally regenerated stands. A functional group approach was used to synthesise species responses in terms of their ecological traits. Multivariate analyses of ecological traits revealed 16 emergent groups that shared common traits associated with a similar life history strategy. Responses of these groups, understory structure, and understory environmental conditions to plantation types and stand stages were analyzed and compared to naturally regenerated stands. Clear associations of trait responses to stand developmental stages and plantation types emerged. Light-demanding and wind-dispersed species groups were associated with early-successional stages, while woody groups, ferns and ant-dispersed spring-flowering herbs were associated with late-successional stages. Analyses also revealed an indicator group associated with old naturally regenerated forest. The understory functional groups and environmental conditions of deciduous plantations converged toward those of old naturally regenerated forests. However, understory structure in deciduous plantations remained poorly developed and richness of the indicator group was low compared to unplanted stands. Conifer plantations, currently the most common plantation type in the northern hardwood biome, showed a completely different pathway of understory development. Modifications to current plantation management practices are proposed to help recreate or maintain natural understory biological and physical attributes.     

Assessing the risk of pollen-mediated gene flow from exotic Eucalyptus globulus plantations into native eucalypt populations of Australia

Eucalyptus globulus is the most commonly planted hardwood species in industrial plantations in Australia. It is typically planted well out of its natural range and may therefore present a significant risk of exotic pollen-mediated gene flow into native eucalypt populations. This risk was assessed by documenting levels of flowering within plantations, frequencies at which reproductively compatible native species are found adjacent to plantations, levels of F₁ hybridisation with native populations, and the existence of F₁ hybrid seedling recruitment. We surveyed over 300 plantations across southern Australia over two years. Flower abundance was found to be low with an average of 3% of trees found to flower on an inside row and 7% on the outside edge row of mature plantations. Considerable variation in flowering was found between locations (0–20% of trees reproductive) and 52% of plantations did not have compatible native species growing adjacent. Consequently, 65% of reproductive age plantations presented minimal or low risk of hybridisation due to lack of flowering and/or lack of adjacent compatible native species. Only three out of 10 surveyed high risk plantations were found to hybridise with native eucalypts (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 0–3% hybrids in open-pollinated seed; Eucalyptus ovata, 0–2%). Established exotic E. ovata × globulus F₁ hybrid seedlings were also identified at just one site, in response to disturbance from fire. The potential for gene flow from E. globulus plantations into native eucalypt populations does exist, however, the implementation of an outlined risk management framework would greatly reduce the likelihood.     

冀北辽河源自然保护区森林景观格局与环境的关系

利用辽河源自然保护区森林资源二类清查数据,在ArcGIS软件和CANOCO for Windows 4.5软件的支持下,采用网格样方的采样方法运用典范对应分析(CCA)法,对冀北辽河源自然保护区的森林景观要素空间分布与环境因子的关系进行了分析研究。结果表明:(1)森林景观总体表现为人工林分布在低海拔地区,天然林分布在高海拔地区,与CCA排序图上的分布一致。Monte Carlo检验结果表明海拔、坡度是影响森林景观格局分异的主要环境因子。(2)在保护区内,坡向、郁闭度和土壤厚度对森林景观类型的空间分布的影响力极为有限,海拔是控制景观要素空间分布格局的主要因素,其次是坡度,二者间接控制水、热条件,影响林分树种的分布,进而影响森林景观格局。     

林分密度对毛乌素沙地樟子松人工林林分结构和林下植被的影响

[目的]研究不同密度下,樟子松人工林林分结构和林下物种多样性的变化,以期为毛乌素沙地以樟子松为建群种的植物固沙模式提供理论依据。[方法]以毛乌素沙地榆林地区5种不同密度25a生樟子松人工林为研究对象,采用样方调查和测试分析法,探究樟子松人工林林分结构和林下物种多样性随林分密度的变化特征。[结果]樟子松人工林密度与平均胸径呈幂函数递减关系,与高径比呈显著的线性正相关关系。樟子松人工林林下共出现植物8科13属16种。草本以禾本科的狗尾草为优势种,草本丰富度、多样性指数随着密度的不断减小,表现出明显的增加趋势。林分密度与物种丰富度指数、多样性指数呈显著的负相关关系,Shannon多样性指数对密度变化最为敏感。[结论]毛乌素沙地樟子松人工林的林分密度与林分结构、林下物种多样性的相关关系十分显著,可以将林下物种多样性指数作为衡量林分密度是否合理的参考指标。     

南亚热带桉树人工林与典型乡土树种人工林土壤磷组分及磷吸附特性比较

土壤磷是制约南亚热带人工林生产力的关键因子,但至今对该地区不同树种人工林土壤磷组分及吸附特征知之甚少。本文研究了位于广西凭祥市的中国林业科学研究院热带林业实验中心的外来速生桉树人工林和典型乡土树种(马尾松、红椎)人工林不同土壤层次中(0～20、20～40和40～60 cm)磷组分含量及吸附性能。结果表明,3种林分土壤有机磷是全磷的主要形态,其含量(91.51～257.45 mg/kg)占全磷的46.25%～71.58%。桉树林土壤全磷、有机磷和无机磷含量明显低于马尾松林和红椎林。同时,桉树人工林土壤活性有机磷含量显著高于2种乡土树种人工林,而其土壤磷酸铝盐、磷酸铁盐、闭蓄态磷和磷酸钙盐含量均低于2种乡土树种人工林。另外,桉树林土壤潜在最大磷吸附量低于2种乡土树种人工林,而土壤磷吸附饱和度却高于2种乡土树种人工林。因此,就土壤磷素供应水平和吸附性能而言,马尾松和红椎比桉树更适于作为当地的造林树种。     

Use of remnant boreal forest habitats by saproxylic beetle assemblages in even-aged managed landscapes

Saproxylic Coleoptera are diverse insects that depend on dead wood in some or all of their life stages. In even-aged boreal forest management, remnant habitats left as strips and patches contain most of the dead wood available in managed landscapes and are expected to act as refuges for mature forest species during the regeneration phase. However, use of remnant habitats by the saproxylic fauna has rarely been investigated. Our objective was to characterize the saproxylic beetle assemblages using clearcuts and forest remnants in western Québec, Canada, and to explore the effects of forest remnant stand characteristics on saproxylic beetle assemblages. We sampled both beetle adults and larvae, using Lindgren funnels and snag dissection, in five habitat locations (clearcuts, forest interiors of large patches, edges of large patches, small patches and cut-block separators) from three distinct landscapes. Adult saproxylic beetles (all feeding guilds combined) had significantly higher species richness and catch rates in small patches compared to forest interiors of large patches; the phloeophagous/xylophagous group had significantly higher species richness only. Small patches, cut-block separators and edges of large patches also had the highest snag density and basal area, increasing habitat for many saproxylic beetles. No significant differences in density of saproxylic larvae were found between habitat patches, but snag dissection nevertheless suggests that snags in forest remnants are used by comparable densities of insects. Saproxylic beetles appear to readily use habitat remnants in even-aged managed landscapes suggesting that forest remnants can insure the local persistence of these species, at least in the timeframe investigated in our study.     

Enhancing vegetation diversity in glades, rides and roads in plantation forests

Permanent open spaces in plantation forests provide an opportunity for enhancing biodiversity in plantations and in the wider landscape. We surveyed vegetation in 60 glades, rides and roads in 12 Irish plantation forests, and collected data on solar radiation, soil and management. Variation in species richness and diversity of vascular plants and bryophytes was determined principally by soil factors and open space management. Light levels were positively associated with vascular plant species richness and negatively associated with richness of bryophytes. In rides, the most important plantation feature in determining solar radiation levels and plant diversity was ride width. Increasing edge-to-area ratio corresponded with a decrease in β-diversity within glades. Roadside plots most strongly influenced by road gravel and disturbance supported the highest vascular plant, open-habitat and ruderal species richness and vegetation evenness. For open spaces to contribute significantly to the biodiversity of plantation forests, rides and roads should be a minimum of 15 m in width and glades should be a minimum of 625-900 m² in area.     

Plantation clearcut size and the persistence of early-successional wildlife populations

Plantation clearcuts represent an important habitat for many open-area wildlife species – including conservation-concern species – in landscapes dominated by industrial forests. However, due to the ephemeral nature of clearcuts, species using this type of environment face a “shifting mosaic” in which their ability to successfully relocate to another habitat patch may play a crucial role in the species’ persistence in the landscape. Although several studies have shown a positive effect of patch size on the persistence of open-habitat species, forest clearcutting represents a special case in which, on average, larger patches also tend to be more isolated from each other, likely creating a trade-off between area and isolation effects. We developed an individual-based spatially-explicit model to test the effect of clearcut size (a critical management variable in plantation forestry) on the persistence of generic early-successional wildlife species in a landscape dominated by forest plantations. We simulated a landscape covered with a plantation harvested regularly over a 25-year rotation and different versions of a wildlife population whose habitat was constituted only by 1–4 year-old patches. We observed that when the species could perceive the attributes of the neighboring pixels persistence time was higher at intermediate clearcut sizes agreeing with our prediction. Also, species with a high dispersal capacity were less limited by connectivity and reached their maximum persistence at higher clearcut sizes. Results also showed a positive effect of habitat lifetime on persistence. Our results suggest large clearcuts may be incompatible with the conservation of many early-successional vertebrates that have limited dispersal capacity, unless additional conservation measures, such as the use of corridors or special spatial arrangement of clearcuts, are taken to overcome the lack of connectivity.     

Agricultural intensification and loss of matrix habitat over 23 years in the West Wimmera, south-eastern Australia

The global trend toward more intensive forms of agriculture is changing the nature of matrix habitat in agricultural areas. Removal of components of matrix habitat can affect native biota at the paddock and the landscape scale, particularly where intensification occurs over large areas. We identify the loss of paddock trees due to the proliferation of centre pivot irrigation in dryland farming areas as a potentially serious threat to the remnant biota of these areas. We used a region of south-eastern Australia as a case study to quantify land use change from grazing and dryland cropping to centre pivot irrigation over a 23-year period. We also estimated rates of paddock tree loss in 5 representative landscapes within the region over the same period. The total area affected by centre pivots increased from 0 ha in 1980 to nearly 9000 ha by 2005. Pivots were more likely to be established in areas which had originally been plains savannah and woodlands containing buloke (Allocasuarina luehmannii), a food source for an endangered bird. On average, 42% of paddock buloke trees present in 1982 were lost by 2005. In the two landscapes containing several centre pivots, the loss was 54% and 70%. This accelerated loss of important components of matrix habitat is likely to result in species declines and local extinctions. We recommend that measures to alleviate the likely negative impacts of matrix habitat loss on native biota be considered as part of regional planning strategies.     

Decomposition rates of forest residues and soil fertility after clear‐cutting of Eucalyptus grandis stands in response to site management and fertilizer application

Forest residues (i.e. harvest residues and litter) are important nutrient sources for trees because soils of poor fertility are used for eucalypt plantations in Brazil. Understanding the dynamics of decomposition for these residues and their effects on soil fertility are relevant for the management of forest plantations. The objectives with this study were to assess the effects of forest residue management and fertilizer, both applied in the establishment of a Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden stand, on the decomposition rate (k), nutrient release and soil fertility after harvest of this stand. The treatments were applied to a plantation (R1). After 8 yr, R1 was clear‐cut and all of the treatments were reapplied to a new planting (R2). At the end of R1 (age of 8 yr), there was a reduction of 10% in the wood volume in the treatment with the forest residues removed and 36% reduction with no fertilizer application. At the end of 1 yr for plantation R2, these reductions were 30 and 57%, respectively. Residue decomposition under R2 was assessed by a new approach that involved collecting samples directly on the site without using litter bags. The k of forest residues was 3.6 for leaves, 1.2 for bark and 0.8 for branches. The application of small rates of N and P fertilizer did not influence the k of forest residues. In the first 300 days after clear‐cutting, approximately 50% of N, P, Ca, Mg and S and 80% of K in the forest residues were released. Even so, this did not result in significant changes in soil fertility levels. Only small reductions in soil N and P contents over time and changes in topsoil pH resulted from forest residue removal.     

Factors affecting site occupancy by woodland bird species of conservation concern

Significant biodiversity loss is characteristic of agricultural landscapes worldwide. Biodiversity recovery efforts in such landscapes can be hamstrung by a paucity of information on factors affecting species’ distributions, particularly for threatened and/or declining species. The temperate woodlands of south-eastern Australia have been extensively modified for agriculture and numerous bird taxa are declining. We have explicitly identified habitat and landscape attributes of woodland remnants affecting site occupancy by 13 woodland bird species of conservation concern.Using case-control data and linear logistic regression, we found that site occupancy for each species was related to both habitat and landscape variables. Habitat variables of particular importance included those in the ground layer (an abundance of leaf litter, an intact surface crust of mosses and lichens and a scarcity of annual grasses) and overstorey (a scarcity of eucalypt dieback and an abundance of mistletoe). Landscape variables strongly affecting site occupancy included the number of paddock trees and the area of native grass within 500 m of a site. Many of our study species were found most often in regrowth remnants.Our findings indicate a gap between current conservation practices and the actual habitat requirements of woodland bird species of conservation concern. Successful management will require protection and/or rehabilitation of the ground layer and overstorey of woodland remnants and sympathetic management of the surrounding landscape. It also will require managers to go beyond current practices of conserving old growth remnants and establishing replantings to maintaining and creating stands of woodland regrowth.     

The invasion of two native Eucalypt forests by Pinus radiata in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia

Invasions of Pinus species are a major environmental concern in South Africa and New Zealand where pines are beginning to dominate native grasslands and shrublands. Pines are widely cultivated in Australia with almost a million hectares growing in large plantations. Plantations are commonly bordered by native Eucalypt vegetation resulting in a high potential for invasion and providing an opportunity to study pine invasion processes within forest environments.In order to determine if Pinus radiata equally invades different dry Eucalypt woodland vegetation types, two areas in the upper Blue Mountains in New South Wales, Australia were surveyed. Similar levels of invasion were observed in both Eucalypt forest types. An average pine abundance of 55 individuals for the Eucalyptus oreades and Eucalyptus sieberi vegetation type and 49 individuals for the Eucalyptus mannifera and Eucalyptus dives vegetation type was recorded in 20 m by 20 m plots located 50 m from the plantation boundary. To characterise the spatial distribution of the pines, transects were placed perpendicular to the plantation edge. As expected pine numbers diminished with distance from the plantation, however, large reproductive pine trees were found up to 4 km from the seed source signifying long distance dispersal.Investigation of wildling pine response to fire suggests that it may not always be an appropriate management tool. Fire stimulated seed release from cones and resulted in high recruitment of seedlings around reproductive pines which were large enough to survive the burn. Infrequent fires at intervals greater than time to maturity will lead to increased pine densities and further spread into the native vegetation.