Human attitudes towards wolves, a matter of distance

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that distance is an important factor affecting attitudes towards wolves, i.e. people living far from wolf territories have more positive attitudes towards wolf conservation than those living within or close to wolf territories. We used multiple regression (an ordered probit model) with both socio-economic variables and information about the respondents’ distance to the nearest wolf territory. We found that favourable attitudes towards wolf conservation were positively associated with distance to the nearest wolf territory. The variable distance to the nearest wolf territory affected attitudes just as much as the variables of membership of nature conservation organisations, being a hunter, owning livestock, or owning a hunting dog. This was true even on the micro-level, i.e. people living in wolf territories had a more negative attitude towards conservation of wolves than people living just outside. Furthermore, we suggest that attitudes towards wolves are more likely a result of indirect experience than direct experience of wolf presence. Our findings are important when interpreting studies of human attitudes towards conservation of controversial species in general and large carnivores in particular, and should be used when designing future surveys of human attitudes towards conservation and management initiatives.     

Cross-fostering in coyotes: Evaluation of a potential conservation and research tool for canids

Cross-fostering has been attempted opportunistically with endangered canids as a means of increasing populations. Due to the usefulness of cross-fostering for conservation, an understanding of factors influencing success rates is essential. Using captive coyotes (Canis latrans) as a model, we assessed the willingness of adult pairs to foster young born to other parents. We assessed the efficacy of fostering pups into existing litters (augmentation) and completely switching litters (replacement). We augmented four litters with two pups of similar age when pups were <7 days old. In addition, we replaced four entire litters when pups were <10 days old. We also augmented litters with pups 3-4 and 6-7 weeks of age. Survival, weight gain, and dominance status of pups were monitored for six weeks and compared to four control litters to determine success. All complete litter replacements were successful with survival rates among replaced pups (89.5%) similar to those of control litters (90%). For augmented litters, pup survival was dependent on the age at which fostering occurred. All pups fostered into 4 litters at <1 week of age survived beyond 6 weeks of age, two of three fostering attempts with 3-4-week-old pups succeeded, while neither of two attempts to foster 6-week-old pups succeeded. Surviving fostered pups appeared to be at no disadvantage. Weight gains were similar for pups in all treatments, and there was no evidence of reduced dominance status among fostered pups as compared to natal pups in the same litters. These results illustrate that genetic relatedness is not essential for successful fostering and does not appear to alter dominance patterns; however the age at which pups are fostered may affect the success of fostering attempts.     

Habitat associations of bats in Northern Ireland: implications for conservation

Agricultural intensification in Northern Ireland has brought about large-scale changes to the landscape with a detrimental effect on biodiversity. Between 1996 and 1998, we surveyed a stratified random sample of 1 km squares for bats using a spot-sample technique and time expansion bat detector to establish linear and area habitat associations. Bats strongly selected water bodies with bankside vegetation, treelines, and deciduous and mixed woodland edge, avoiding open areas such as upland/unimproved grassland and improved grassland. Of three sympatric pipistrelle species (Pipistrellus pipistrellus, P. pygmaeus and P. nathusii), two were shown to forage in different habitats; P. pipistrellus being more of a ‘generalist’, foraging in a wider variety of habitats than P. pygmaeus, a ‘specialist’ which foraged in a smaller range of habitats. Nyctalus leisleri selected parkland/amenity grassland, deciduous woodland edge and rivers/canals and avoided improved grassland, hedgerows, whilst Myotis spp. selected deciduous woodland centre, lake/reservoir margins and rivers/canals. Reduction in area and quality of inland water, deciduous woodlands and field boundaries in Northern Ireland may impact on bat populations. Habitat management should focus on improving those habitats which are selected by bats, including the maintenance and enhancement of connecting linear habitats.     

Farmer attitudes toward wolves: Implications for the role of predators in managing disease

The potential for disease transmission between wild and domestic animals may interfere with wildlife and habitat conservation on lands surrounding protected areas. Recently, possible transmission of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) from wild ungulates to domestic livestock has affected the Riding Mountain National Park region in Manitoba, Canada. Wolf (Canis lupus) predation on ungulate populations may help lessen the risk of disease transmission to livestock. We conducted an exploratory analysis of causal factors associated with farmer attitudes toward observing wolves on their farms. A survey to 4 220 farms within 50 km of the Park resulted in an adjusted response rate of 25%. We constructed several logistic regression models with factors hypothesized to influence whether farmers agreed with the statement “I enjoy seeing wolves on my land”, and three candidate models received reasonable support. Factors most affecting attitudes were, in order of importance, perceived wolf population size, frequency of seeing wolves, perceived seriousness of wolf damage, distance to Park boundary and number of beef cattle (Bos taurus) owned. The factors least influential on attitudes were education and age. Concern over bovine tuberculosis in wild elk also had minimal influence. Of respondents who perceived the wolf population as “too high”, 60% were extremely concerned about bovine tuberculosis in wild elk. Although the role of wolf predation as a potential natural regulator of disease in wild ungulates might not be widely recognized in many areas, we believe this provides a unique opportunity to re-examine the significance of maintaining viable wolf populations.     

Congenital bone deformities and the inbred wolves (Canis lupus) of Isle Royale

The wolf (Canis lupus) population on Isle Royale, a remote island in Lake Superior, North America, is extremely inbred. Nevertheless, the consequences of genetic deterioration have not been detected for this intensively studied population, until now. We found that 58% (n = 36) of Isle Royale wolves exhibited some kind of congenital malformation in the lumbosacral region of the vertebral column and 33% exhibited a specific malformity, lumbosacral transitional vertebrae. By contrast, only 1% (1 of 99) of wolves sampled from two outbred, wolf populations exhibited this malformity. Moreover, in domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) lumbosacral transitional vertebrae are associated with cauda equina syndrome, which can cause paresis, paralysis, locomotor difficulties in the rear legs and tail, and back pain. Whereas many studies illustrate how genetic deterioration affects population-level phenomena, such as survival and reproduction, these results are distinctive for demonstrating how genetic deterioration has compromised the morphology of individuals in a free-ranging population. The results are also significant because many policy makers and stakeholders and some conservation professionals use examples like Isle Royale wolves to downplay the consequences of genetic deterioration.     

Changes in attitudes toward wolves in Croatia

Against a background of an evolving wolf policy process we carried out personal structured interviews with residents of three regions within Croatian wolf range in 1999 (n = 1209) and repeated the study, using the same methodology in 2003 (n = 1172). We documented a change in public support for wolf conservation and support for control of wolves. The change was a result of a real change in attitudes and not of a change in the age structure of the sampled population. The changes were documented in the two southern regions, Lika and Dalmatia, with attitudes shifting towards a more neutral viewpoint, as there was a decrease in support for wolf conservation and a decrease in support to control wolves. It seems that different birth cohorts react differently to conservation activities. In 1999, the younger cohort groups may have been influenced more by the legal protection campaign. The older cohorts reacted more sympathetically to livestock concerns and thus held stronger negative attitudes toward wolves. Using human dimensions research as an evaluative tool can help large carnivore managers be more adaptive and thus effective in their management solutions.     

Mountain lion depredation in southern Brazil

Mountain lion (Puma concolor) depredation incidents on livestock herds were recorded at 15 ranches in southern Brazil from 1993 to 1995. Maximum losses to mountain lions were 78% for goats, 84% for sheep, and 16% for cattle. Cattle mortality arising from causes other than depredation assumed a greater importance in herd productivity. In contrast, attacks on sheep and goats were more frequent than losses to other causes, but could be reduced to acceptable levels when flocks were corralled at night. Most depredation incidents occurred when weather and light conditions were unfavorable to human activity. We explain these patterns and inter-ranch variation in depredation rates on the basis of a risk-avoidance strategy by the mountain lions. Stock losses can be minimized by understanding these patterns and by applying appropriate herd husbandry, thus reducing the urge to persecute this protected species.     

Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a North American perennial clonal herb highly prized for its medicinal value. It is threatened at the northern range limit with only 20 populations known in Canada. To assist recovery planning, 13 populations were sampled to model dynamics. The fate of all ramets in one square-meter was monitored from 1998 to 2001. Transition matrices were built for 2000-2001, using three stage classes based on size and reproductive status. A six-stage pooled matrix, separating established ramets from newly produced ramets, was also constructed. Recruitment by seed was not observed and therefore excluded. The average population growth rate (λ) was 1.062 ± 0.053, which did not significantly differ from the equilibrium value (1.0) suggesting that the northern population is stationary. However, growth rates among population samples varied largely and had wide confidence intervals. Populations with λ-values less than or close to 1.0 require environmental change to increase. Recovery of goldenseal, and possibly other woodland perennials at risk, requires intervention aimed at population size augmentation, habitat optimization, and targeted dispersal.     

An unseen foe in arthropod conservation efforts: The case of Wolbachia infections in the Karner blue butterfly

Infection by endosymbiotic bacteria is an underappreciated threat to endangered arthropods with serious implications for captive management programs. We examined the nature of Wolbachia infection in the North American endangered Karner blue butterfly, Lycaeides melissa samuelis, as a case study. Screening for Wolbachia across the range of the species confirmed widespread infection in the western half of the Karner blue’s range. Multilocus sequence typing using six genes confirmed that the infection in the western populations is attributable to a single strain of Wolbachia. This strain was also detected in the closely related Melissa blue butterfly, L. m. melissa, the presumed source of the infection. The infection in the Karner blue butterfly was perfectly correlated with the presence of a foreign mitochondrial DNA variant present in the Melissa blue butterfly, consistent with the hypothesis that the mitochondrial introgression was driven by the spread of Wolbachia. A single individual out of 71 screened from the eastern portion of the range of the Karner blue butterfly was also infected, however this infection was attributable to a different strain. Simulation models of the demographic effects of the spread of Wolbachia infection to uninfected populations and metapopulations suggest that such an infection might further reduce already small population sizes and substantially increase the probability of population extirpation. We discuss threats to other endangered arthropods in the light of this case study and make recommendations for minimizing the impact of endosymbiont infections in conservation plans, especially those including captive propagation and augmentation of endangered arthropod populations.     

Patterns of roost use by bats in a neotropical savanna: implications for conservation

Neotropic bats comprise a highly species-rich group and are considered important regulators of complex ecological processes. Resource partitioning of roosts and food is considered a key element in shaping bat communities. In this paper we examine the roosting patterns of 10 bat species belonging to a neotropical bat community in a Bolivian savanna. Roosts were more common in open woodlands than in forest islands and human settlements. In open woodlands, Tabebuia heptaphylla comprised the largest proportion of roosting trees, whereas in forest islands, Gallesia integrifolia was the most important roosting tree for phyllostomid bats. By comparing active roosts with control holes in Tabebuia heptaphylla, we found that roost site selection by Noctilio albiventris was mainly based on tree diameter and inner width of the cavities. The earlier results are discussed in view of resource partitioning within savanna bat communities and their practical conservation.     

How much is enough? Landscape-scale conservation for the Florida panther

The Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) is an endangered, wide-ranging predator whose habitat needs conflict with a rapidly growing human population. Our goal was to identify specific regions of the south Florida landscape that are of high conservation value to support a self-sustaining panther population. We used compositional and Euclidean distance analyses to determine relative importance of various land cover types as panther habitat and to investigate the role of forest patch size in habitat selection. A model of landscape components important to Florida panther habitat conservation was created. The model was used in combination with radio telemetry records, home range overlaps, land use/land cover data, and satellite imagery to delineate Primary and Secondary zones that would comprise a landscape mosaic of cover types sufficient to support a self-sustaining population. The Primary Zone generally supports the present population and is of highest conservation value, while the Secondary Zone is of lesser value but could accommodate expansion of the population given sufficient habitat restoration. Least-cost path models identified important landscape linkages, and model results were used to delineate a Dispersal Zone to accommodate future panther dispersal outside of south Florida. We determined that the three habitat zones could support 80-94 panthers, a population likely to persist and remain stable for 100 years, but that would be subject to continued genetic problems. The Primary, Dispersal and Secondary zones comprise essential components of a landscape-scale conservation plan for the protection of a viable Florida panther population in south Florida. Assessments of potential impacts of developments should strive to achieve no net loss of landscape function or carrying capacity for panthers within the Primary Zone or throughout the present range of the Florida panther.     

Florida panther dispersal and conservation

We studied dispersal in 27 radio-collared Florida panthers Puma concolor coryi in southern Florida from 1986 to 2000. Male dispersal was longer (mean=68.4 km) than that of females (mean=20.3 km), tended to be circular, frustrated, and of insufficient length to ameliorate inbreeding. Females were philopatric and established home ranges that were less than one home range width away from their natal ranges. All females were successful in establishing territories, whereas males were successful 63% of the time. Dispersing panthers avoided moving toward the southeast and into an area of limited forest cover. Independence and the initiation of dispersal occurred at about 14 months of age and lasted for an average of 7.0-9.6 months for females and males, respectively. On average, Florida panthers disperse shorter distances than are typical for western populations of Puma concolor. A recent increase in long distance male dispersal events may be related to an increase in reproduction and population density resulting from the introduction of female cougars P. c. stanleyana into south Florida. Although the population exhibits the behavioral ability to colonize nearby vacant range, females have yet to do so. Successful dispersal to these areas could be facilitated by habitat restoration and translocation of females.     

Swarming of bats at underground sites in Britain—implications for conservation

We investigated the extent of visitation of underground sites during late summer and autumn (‘swarming’) by bats. Bats were captured at eight cave, mine and tunnel sites in southern England over 6 years (1995-2000). A total of 3077 bats representing 11 of Britain's 16 species was caught. Myotis bats predominated in autumn. At some sites these are rarely seen during winter hibernation counts. Myotis nattereri and M. daubentonii were most common. However, species composition changed seasonally. At one site, M. brandtii dominated early in the season and at all sites peak activity of M. daubentonii was earlier than in M. nattereri. Relatively high numbers of internationally vulnerable species such as M. bechsteinii and Barbastella barbastellus were recorded. There was a strong male bias in captures of swarming species. Swarming probably has an important reproductive function, most males are reproductively active at this time and such sites may be important for outbreeding. Due to this and the large number of individuals and species concerned, the conservation of ‘swarming sites’ is vitally important. Clearly swarming sites merit special consideration in conservation management strategies for cave-dwelling bats.     

Conspecific attraction in loggerhead shrikes: implications for habitat conservation and reintroduction

The loggerhead shrike, Lanius ludovicianus, is a declining songbird that forms breeding aggregations. Despite such reports from several populations, only one statistical analysis of loggerhead shrike territory distribution has been published to date. I use a spatio-temporal simulation technique to test for deviations from randomness in the spatial distribution of point data that takes into account date of nest establishment. I apply this model to data on the distribution of shrike nests in Comanche County, Oklahoma, USA, collected over the 1998 and 1999 breeding seasons. When the data are considered without regard to date of nest-establishment, the results are equivocal; nests are significantly aggregated in 1999, but not 1998. However, when order of nest establishment is taken into account, later nests are significantly more likely to be closer than expected to conspecifics in both years. This is true even when the distribution of simple resources, such as suitable nest-trees, is included in the model. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that loggerhead shrikes ‘prospect’ for suitable habitat using the distribution of breeding conspecifics. This aspect of loggerhead shrike breeding ecology should be considered for both habitat conservation and captive breeding and reintroduction programs for this species.     

Reproductive biology and conservation implications of three endangered snapdragon species (Antirrhinum, Plantaginaceae)

About 32% of Antirrhinum species are considered to be endangered; however, no field studies have focused on their reproductive biology. In this work, several aspects of the reproductive biology (flowering phenology, floral biology, breeding system) and potential limits on seed quantity and quality (pollen limitation, inbreeding depression) were studied in natural populations of three endangered species of the genus (Antirrhinum charidemi, Antirrhinum subbaeticum, Antirrhinum valentinum). Results disclose that all three species need insect visitors for seed production since fruit set after autonomous self-pollination was lower than under hand cross-pollination. A. charidemi and A. valentinum were mainly self-incompatible, whereas A. subbaeticum was self-compatible but herkogamous. Supplementary pollination in open-pollinated flowers only increased fruit set and seed set relative to controls in a given population of A. valentinum. Preliminary data on inbreeding depression at early life-cycle stages of the self-compatible A. subbaeticum revealed that the cumulative level was low. Despite the three species being closely related and sharing many ecological characteristics, they show different mating systems, and different factors limit seed quantity and quality. Thus, caution should be taken when making a common conservation plan for a group of closely related taxa.     

Ecology of the native and introduced crayfishes Austropotamobius pallipes and Procambarus clarkii in southern Spain and implications for conservation of the native species

The former and present distribution of white clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) in the province of Granada (southern Spain) is studied. Before 1980 it was widely distributed but at present only 16 populations exist. The decline is related to the presence of the freshwater red-swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), an American species, vector of the aphanomycosis disease, introduced to the Iberian Peninsula in 1974 and now widely distributed in the watercourses and marshes of southern Spain. To establish an appropriate conservation policy for A. pallipes at its southernmost distribution limit, we studied watercourses from two river basins, Genil and Guadiana Menor, (tributaries of the Guadalquivir River). P. clarkii inhabits the medium to lower reaches of these two river basins (with its upper limit at 820 m a.s.l.). The distribution of this species was best explained by the effect of three of the 12 analyzed variables: altitude, water-current and minimum winter temperatures. From our results, the repopulation of the native crayfish is almost impossible in those reaches inhabited by P. clarkii. However, based on the habitat selection study, it is clear that upper reaches are unsuitable for the red-swamp crayfish, where the native white-clawed crayfish may have greater survival possibilities, and these sites can be used for future restocking projects.     

Factors affecting persistence of terrestrial orchids in wet meadows and implications for their conservation in a changing agricultural landscape

We examined the occurrence of Dactylorhiza majalis, the most abundant terrestrial orchid species growing in rapidly disappearing wet meadows, at 50 historical sites for 3 years. We aimed to find the most frequent reasons for its recent extinction at many sites. We found that the main reasons for its extinction were absence of mowing, intensive fertilisation and washouts of fertilisers from fields nearby. At extant sites, we studied its biometric characteristics and composition of surrounding vegetation, to determine factors affecting its persistence. Bad performance of persisting populations of this species was associated with prevalence of grasses, low May temperatures and absence of mowing. This confirms, at metapopulation level, what has previously been observed at the level of individual populations. We suggest that the system of agricultural subsidies in the country should change towards more sensitive allocation of funds to those farmers, who will adopt the appropriate management of wet meadows and their surroundings.     

Microsatellite analysis of genetic population structure of the endangered cyprinid Anaecypris hispanica in Portugal: implications for conservation

The endangered fish species Anaecypris hispanica is restricted to eight disjunct populations in the Portuguese Guadiana drainage. The genetic structure of these populations was studied in order to determine levels of genetic variation within and among populations and suggest implications for conservation of the species. Based on five microsatellite loci, the null hypothesis of population homogeneity was tested. Tests for genetic differentiation revealed highly significant differences for pairwise comparisons between all populations, and substantial overall population subdivision (F_ST=0.112). All sampled populations contained unique alleles. Our findings indicate marked genetic structuring and emphasise limited dispersal ability. The high levels of genetic diversity detected within and among A. hispanica populations suggest, however, that the observed fragmentation and reduction in population size of some populations during the last two decades, has impacted little on levels of genetic variability. Data imply that most A. hispanica populations should be managed as distinct units and that each has a high conservation value containing unique genetic variation. It is argued that geographic patterns of genetic structuring indicate the existence of eight management units.     

Artificial dispersal of endangered epiphytic lichens: a tool for conservation in boreal forest landscapes

Due to increasing fragmentation of the boreal forests of Fennoscandia, a number of epiphytic lichens are now becoming threatened. Since these species typically are limited by a poor ability of dispersal, one possible but largely unexplored strategy for conservation is to disperse lichen material artificially into suitable habitats. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate survival and vitality in lichen fragments from Evernia divaricata (L.) Ach. and Ramalina dilacerata (Hoffm.) Hoffm. after transplantation into three different stand types situated in northern Sweden, using different fragment sizes and modes of transplantation. After one year, survival ranged between 85% and 97.5%, and new growth occurred at all transplantation sites. The study has shown that transplantations of small fragments might constitute a resource-efficient option for establishment of new populations of endangered lichen species, or for enlarging their populations at the present sites of occurrence. In addition, the mode of transplantation was of importance for fragment vitality.     

Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya

Most large mammalian carnivores are in global decline, principally due to conflict with livestock farmers. Because endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) range widely, often beyond the boundaries of protected areas, they may be particularly exposed to lethal control by farmers, even where nominally protected by reserves. Hence, effectively conserving wild dogs demands resolution of their conflicts with farmers. We investigated livestock depredation by African wild dogs living outside protected areas in northern Kenya. Scat analysis confirmed the distribution of depredation events reported by local farmers, indicating that farmer reports - collated by local Community Liaison Officers - gave a reasonably good index of the true pattern of depredation. Although livestock were abundant throughout the study area, depredation was exceedingly uncommon (approximately one attack per 1000 km² per year) and the costs of tolerating wild dogs were very low (US $3.40/wilddog/year) where wild prey remained, even at low densities. However, where wild prey were seriously depleted, wild dogs killed livestock repeatedly, and the cost of sustaining them rose to US $389/wilddog/year. Hence, although wild dogs had a negligible economic impact in the region, their impact was locally severe. Conservation activities for wild dogs are most likely to be successful if targeted at areas where wild prey remain, and where traditional herding practices have been retained.