The sustainability of subsistence hunting of peccaries in the Argentine Chaco

Subsistence hunting practiced by poor rural and indigenous people in Latin America differentially affects the three species of peccaries (Artiodactyla: Tayassuidae). Sustainability of subsistence hunting of peccaries in the Argentine semi-arid Chaco, where the three species coexist, was unknown. My objectives were to determine the importance of peccaries for the local people, describe the current pattern of hunting and its impact on the three species of peccary and identify the factors that affect hunting sustainability. I found that many rural (70%) and village people (40%) consumed peccaries. White-lipped and chacoan peccaries were more susceptible to overharvesting than collared peccary. Current rates of hunting of white-lipped and chacoan peccaries are likely not sustainable because: (a) density of both species was between two to three times higher inside a protected area than outside; (b) populations have declined near larger villages and in older settlements; (c) herds sizes were small in comparison with other regions; (d) large number of juveniles less than one year old were harvested; (e) hunting did not discriminate based on sex or reproductive status and (f) The unified harvest model indicated unsustainable harvest because more than 40% of the reproductive production was taken and populations densities were less than 60% carrying capacities. In contrast, harvest of collared peccary seems sustainable at the current rates of hunting by rural peasants. Other threats such as forest exploitation, however, are accelerating, and are likely to reduce sustainability.     

Conservation of European wild rabbit populations when hunting is age and sex selective

Several predator species at risk of extinction in Southwestern Europe are dependent on the population density of European wild rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus. Rabbit populations in the region, however, have recently undergone dramatic decreases in population density, which may be exacerbated by hunting. Current hunting policies set the autumn-winter season, just before the start of rabbit reproduction, as the main hunting season, and previous theoretical models have estimated that the current hunting season may have the greatest negative impact on rabbit abundance and should be changed. We utilised a model for rabbit population dynamics to determine the effects of the timing of hunting during two seasons, summer and autumn, on the tendency of rabbit populations to be over-harvested and on the number of rabbits hunted. This model included field estimates of age- and sex-selection biases of hunting by shotgun. Scenarios with different hunting rates and sex- and age-selection probabilities of hunting were simulated for populations with different turnover levels and with and without compensatory mortality mechanisms. Field estimations showed that hunting in summer was juvenile-biased whereas autumn hunting was juvenile- and male-biased. In contrast to previous findings, our modelling results suggested that hunting in autumn may be the most conservative option for harvesting of rabbit populations, since these populations were more prone to be over-harvested during the summer. The differences between the two seasons in number of rabbits hunted were dependent on population dynamics and hunting sex- and age-selection probabilities. Our findings suggest that altering of current hunting policies would not optimise the exploitation or conservation of wild rabbit populations, but that the latter may be improved by some changes in the timing of hunting.     

Management implications of capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) social behavior

Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are the world’s largest rodent. Free-living populations are commercially harvested for their meat and leather in Colombia, Venezuela and Argentina; however, there is concern that legal and illegal harvesting is not sustainable. Since capybaras are considered an economic resource, there have been several attempts to explore the effect of different hunting strategies on its population dynamics. Two previous population models have been developed with this goal; however neither included capybara social behavior that may affect population dynamics. We developed an age-structured, density-dependent model of capybara herd dynamics to explore the demographic consequences of different hunting strategies. We then added infanticide and female reproductive suppression to explore the demographic consequences of such behavior. We conducted five different simulations and used ANOVA to estimate the effect of hunting females, hunting males, hunting both males and females, and the independent effects of reproductive suppression and infanticide on population size after 50 years. Our model suggests that suppression has the largest effect on population size, followed by hunting females and males hunting, female hunting, male hunting and infanticide. Thus, to develop more realistic harvesting models, managers should determine the degree of reproductive suppression and the frequency of infanticide by males.     

Effects of Key deer herbivory on forest communities in the lower Florida Keys

Ungulate herbivory can have strong impacts on plant communities, but these impacts are rarely considered in recovery plans of endangered species. This study examined the effects of the endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) on its environment in the lower Florida Keys. The Key deer population has increased to over 700 deer from approximately 50 deer in the 1950s; however, approximately 75% of the population resides on only a few islands (Big Pine, No Name, Big Munson) where Key deer herbivory on forest communities may be substantial. Effects of deer herbivory on plant densities were estimated on these islands using vegetation quadrats in hardwood hammock, buttonwood transition, and mangrove wetlands and compared to nine other islands with intermediate or low deer densities. On islands with high deer density, densities of preferred woody plant species <1.2 m tall (within Key deer reach) were significantly lower than islands with lower deer densities, while densities of some nonpreferred species were significantly higher. Deer exclosures established in hardwood hammock on a high-density deer island revealed a mean increase in abundance/height of preferred woody species inside exclosures, while nonpreferred species significantly increased in open plots. We conclude that on high deer density islands, highly preferred plant species might eventually fail to regenerate and unpalatable plant species may become dominant. Careful criteria need to be developed to maintain Key deer numbers above an endangered species status yet below levels that are destructive to local forest species.     

Alarming houbara bustard population trends in Asia

Relative abundance and density estimates of Asian houbara were assessed during the breeding season in two breeding grounds of migrant populations (China and south Kazakhstan) and in one breeding ground of a resident population (Oman), between 1998 and 2002. For the study period, the relative abundance was from 0.004 to 0.06 individual per km driven and density estimates varied from 0.01 to 0.2 houbara per km². Relative abundance and density of houbara declined by 63% and 69%, respectively in China, by 60% and 49%, respectively in Kazakhstan and by 50% and 75%, respectively in Oman. Overall, an average of 27-30% annual decline in both relative abundance and density was observed for the three regions. Despite being legally a strictly protected species in China, Kazakhstan and Oman, houbara are heavily hunted and poached on all their migration routes and wintering grounds. The current levels of hunting and poaching are not sustainable and without the immediate agreement and implementation of international conservation measures, the Asian houbara may face extinction in the wild in the foreseeable future.     

Distribution and relative abundance of peccaries in the Argentine Chaco: associations with human factors

In the Argentine Chaco, the three species of peccaries (Artiodactyla) are likely affected by habitat destruction and hunting, yet basic information on peccary distribution and status in this region is poorly known. This study identifies human factors associated with relative abundance and distribution of each species. Estimation of relative abundance was based on interviews with local hunters, and variables potentially related to distribution and relative abundance of peccaries were estimated for 153 circular sample sites of 10 km diameter in the Argentine Chaco. Peccaries were found in sites of high forest cover, low human density, far from towns and with low density of roads. After accounting for forest cover and other variables, number of settlements was identified as the main variable negatively associated with relative abundance of the three species, which may be a result of local hunting. Density of roads was also negatively associated with presence of chacoan peccaries. Collared peccary seems to be the least susceptible to human perturbations. It was the most widely distributed and found in a wider range of conditions than the other species. Chacoan peccary was relatively rare. Because colonization and development programs are increasing in the region, areas still uninhabited should be protected, construction of roads controlled, and hunting managed.     

Impacts of urbanization on Florida Key deer behavior and population dynamics

Rapid human population growth and urbanization have had a negative impact on species biodiversity. As competition for resources between man and wildlife continues, it is important to understand the effects of urbanization on species. Endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) are endemic to the Florida Keys which have undergone rapid human population growth and development over the past 30 years. Our study objectives were to evaluate the impacts of urban development on Key deer habitat use, population dynamics, behavior, and body mass. We used data from two comprehensive studies on Key deer spanning 30 years to evaluate these changes. Our results suggest that Key deer have become more urbanized, using urban areas more today than they did 30 years ago. Contrary to our predictions, survival was higher for more urban deer than for less urban deer. Problems still exist with mortality factors heavily impacting some portions of the deer population including lower survival associated with less urban male deer. Analysis of Key deer body mass also was converse to our predictions as deer weights appear to have increased over time. Collectively, our results suggest that over the past 30 years Key deer have become more urbanized and that deer plasticity has allowed them to adapt and persist in an urbanizing environment. However, the future ability of Key deer to persist in an environment with continued urban development is unknown. At some threshold, urban development would become unsustainable and unlike other forms of habitat change or environmental disturbances, urban development is in most cases irreversible requiring careful planning in habitat conservation strategies.     

Modelling hunting strategies for the conservation of wild rabbit populations

Recently, European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations have undergone a sharp decline that may be exacerbated by hunting. We investigate the effects of the timing of hunting on the conservation of wild rabbit using a model for rabbit population dynamics. Scenarios with different hunting rates and age strategies were simulated for different population qualities. We interviewed hunters to ascertain the degree to which they would accept a change in the timing of hunting. We also investigated the hunting pressure applied by hunters and its relationship with rabbit abundance. Modelling results indicate that the current hunting season has the greatest impact on rabbit abundance. Hunting in late spring optimises hunting extraction while conserving rabbit populations. When the rabbit population quality is low the effects of age strategies and the timing of hunting are less important than the effect of the hunting rate applied. Almost half the hunters would agree to policy changes. More than 75% of hunters implemented self-imposed hunting restrictions to improve rabbit populations, that were more frequently applied in high rabbit abundance areas. Therefore, changing the timing of hunting and increasing the participation of hunters in low abundance areas could optimise both the exploitation and the conservation of wild rabbit populations in southwestern Europe.     

Two genetically distinct units of the Chinese sika deer (cervus nippon): analyses of mitochondrial DNA variation

Chinese sika deer, Cervus nippon, are currently threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and human hunting, which has led to the extinction of three subspecies in the wild. The remaining subspecies subsist in the narrow regions of Jilin, Heilongjiang, Sichuan, Gansu, Jiangxi, Anhui, and Zhejiang provinces. In order to design effective conservation strategies for the Chinese sika deer, we have investigated genetic diversity, population structure and gene flow in the Chinese sika deer populations by analyzing ≈995 base pairs of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region in 59 individuals sampled from the northeast of China, Sichuan, Jiangxi and Zhejiang. Chinese sika deer exhibited low mtDNA diversity and high gene flow among the four populations, and showed no strong geographical structure. The analyses of mtDNA variation among individuals of sika deer identified only two main phylogenetic groups even though three subspecies were sampled. These data singles out the Zhejiang population as being highly genetically distinct and worthy of separate conservation consideration. Therefore, it is recommended that a breeding program for the Zhejiang population be established.     

How does human exploitation affect impala populations in protected and partially protected areas? - A case study from the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania

Human exploitation can have severe conservation implications for wildlife populations. In the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania, illegal hunting is a serious concern for wildlife management, and in this study we investigated if density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation. We used impala (Aepycerus melampus) as a model species to study human exploitation inside and outside a strictly protected area. Over a six month period, a total of 2050 km of transects were driven in the different protected areas (National Park, Game Reserve, Open Area). Densities were estimated by using distance sampling and the partially protected areas were found to have significantly lower densities (4.3 ind/km²) than the National Park (15.3 ind/km²). A variation in density between different sections within the National Park was also found. However, we found no differences in group sizes. Moreover, the sex-ratio was more skewed towards females in the partially protected areas and in sections within the National Park close to villages. In addition, impalas showed higher alertness levels, and longer flight initiation distance to an approaching human in the partially protected areas compared to the National Park. The present harvest levels by illegal hunting in the study area are most likely the cause of the observed differences. Our results suggest that density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation, but that this probably varies according to local hunting pressure. Furthermore, it could be expected that the results obtained in this study might reflect the state of other ungulates in the area, which raises concern whether management objectives for the buffer zones of Serengeti National Park are met.     

Foraging in the fallows: Hunting patterns across a successional continuum in the Peruvian Amazon

Studies comparing hunting between secondary and mature forests are critical to understanding secondary forests’ potential as sustainable hunting grounds. I examined hunting across a successional continuum by surveying 67 households in three communities near the Cordillera Azul National Park, Peru, and analyzing the potential for sustainable hunting. Ninety-nine percent of households surveyed went hunting during the six-month study. Ninety-one species were recorded from seven vertebrate and invertebrate classes, with mammals the most hunted. Five percent of extraction events were species of concern on IUCN’s Red List. Households extracted significantly more, in terms of number of species, number of collection events, and biomass, from older forests (>20 y) than from young secondary (1-5 y) or old secondary forests (5-20 y). However, when extraction is measured per unit area (kg/km² or collection events/km²), households extracted more wildlife from old secondary forest. Households consumed meat at rates below Amazon regional averages. However, because human population densities are well above carrying capacity, current low harvest rates are likely a relic of past overharvests and do not reflect sustainability. Even if management focuses on source-sink dynamics with buffer zone hunting resupplied by protected area populations, long-term sustainability seems doubtful. As more agricultural clearing converts older forests to fields and fallows, the role of secondary forests in resource management plans will increase. The impact of high human population densities in the region means conservation and development programs should focus more on supplying alternative sources of protein and income and limiting immigration into the area.     

Herbivory, hunting, and long-term vegetation change in degraded savanna

Large ungulate populations are associated with the degradation of many forest plant communities, but it is unclear if these population sizes are strictly a contemporary phenomenon. Human exploitation models predict they are not, with ungulate numbers varying with long-term fluctuations in hunting pressure. Alternatively, human disturbance models predict that abiotic limitations normally restrict herbivores, with contemporary increases reflecting increased productivity associated with agriculture and forestry. Both can explain ungulate abundance, but may have different implications for plant conservation because they predict different levels of prior evolutionary exposure to herbivory. Here, I review historical records and stand structure studies from degraded oak savanna of western North America to examine whether current ungulate levels are strictly a contemporary phenomenon. Although it was impossible to quantify pre-European herd sizes, all evidence indicates a strong relationship between hunting pressure and ungulate abundance. Historical accounts repeatedly describe large herds of deer and elk at first European contact, followed by sharp declines immediately after colonization, and then rapid recovery beginning in the early 1900s as subsistence hunting waned. Stand structure data for oak woodland appear to support this model. Present-day oak woodlands mostly derive from mass recruitment from 1850 to 1910, coinciding with the near elimination of ungulates by hunting. Although these results suggest that large ungulate herds are not strictly a contemporary phenomenon, browsing intensity appears to be unprecedented given limited hunting, predator extirpation, and savanna fragmentation within productive pasture and early successional forest. Hunting pressure thus continues to be important, in that it is now largely absent.     

Restoring forest herb communities through landscape-level deer herd reductions: Is recovery limited by legacy effects?

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) overbrowsing has altered plant species diversity throughout deciduous forest understories in eastern North America. Here we report on a landscape-level (306 km²) project in Pennsylvania, USA that tracked the herbaceous community response to deer herd reductions. From 2001 to 2007, we estimated deer densities, browse impact on woody seedlings, and censused the herbaceous flora in permanent plots throughout the area. We assessed herb layer species richness, abundance, and dominance and measured three known phytoindicators of deer impact: Trillium spp., Maianthemum canadense, and Medeola virginiana. We predicted that browse-sensitive taxa would increase in abundance, size, and flowering as would overall species diversity following deer culls and browse impact that declined by an order of magnitude by 2007. Following intensified deer harvests, we observed a limited recovery of the herbaceous community. Trillium spp. abundance, height, and flowering; M. canadense cover; and M. virginiana height all increased following herd reductions. Similarly, forb and shrub cover increased by 130% and 300%, respectively. Nevertheless, species diversity (i.e., richness and dominance) did not vary. Our work demonstrates that reducing deer densities can provide rapid morphological and population-level benefits to palatable species without a concomitant recovery in diversity. We suggest that decreasing deer populations alone may not promote plant diversity in overbrowsed, depauperate forests without additional restoration strategies to mitigate a browse-legacy layer dominated by browse-resistant species.     

Browsing down our natural heritage: Deer impacts on vegetation structure and songbird populations across an island archipelago

Declines in forest and woodland birds have largely been attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation. In the past decade, however, the potential for herbivores to influence bird species abundance and community composition via their direct impact on vegetation structure has also been recognised. We tested the hypothesis that deer influence vegetation structure and bird assemblages in a large island archipelago in western North America using surveys of 18 islands with deer densities ranging from 0 to over 1 deer/ha. Amongst these islands, reduced predation and hunting pressure has allowed deer populations to increase above those likely to have existed in pre-European times. Our results support a growing body of evidence that deer regulate both the cover and architecture of understory vegetation which in turn profoundly affects island bird assemblages. Deer-free islands supported the most abundant and diverse bird fauna. Iconic songbirds such as the rufous hummingbird, song and fox sparrow were abundant on islands with no deer but substantially reduced on islands with high deer densities. Only one bird species, the dark-eyed junco, preferred moderate and high density deer islands. Our observations suggest that current cohorts of palatable shrubs on islands with high deer densities are relatively old and potentially represent an impending extinction debt, where the full effects of high deer density on island biota may take decades to fully unfold. Our results suggest that deer densities below a threshold of 0.1 deer/ha should allow native vegetation to recover and a rich and diverse bird species assemblage to persist. We suggest that adaptive management be used to test the validity of this threshold, and that without active management of deer abundance, local extinctions of native flora and fauna appear likely to accelerate.     

Are red-footed boobies Sula sula at risk from harvesting by humans on Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Indian Ocean?

The red-footed booby, Sula sula, has been hunted in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, eastern Indian Ocean, since first settlement in 1827. Formerly present throughout the islands, an estimated 30,000 pairs now breed only on isolated and uninhabited North Keeling Island. Despite legislative protection, illegal hunting for food remains a major conservation threat. Informants estimated that 2000-3000 birds are killed in most years and possibly as many as 10,000 in some years. Analysis of nest count data collected between 1985 and 2002 to assess long-term population trends showed no evidence of decline in nesting density. There was large inter-annual variation with substantial fluctuations which tended to be greater following significant cyclonic events. These results indicate that the level of illegal harvest during the study period has not negatively impacted the booby nesting population. Future management of seabird harvesting requires improved knowledge on the population's capacity to sustain harvesting, together with increased enforcement activity to control illegal harvest, and enhanced education programs to encourage change in community attitudes.     

Sustainability of hunting, population densities, intrinsic rates of increase and conservation of Papua New Guinean mammals: A quantitative review

New Guinea’s mammalian fauna consists of a unique assemblage of relatively small sized (0.5-13.5 kg) marsupial mammals, the hunting of which provides a major source of protein for local communities. However, the impact of hunting and the influence of the marsupial life-history strategies on the sustainability of hunting are unknown. Anthropological studies of subsistence hunting and published life-history data for Australasian marsupial mammals were quantitatively reviewed to determine the major sources of game and annual harvest, and estimate intrinsic rates of population increase (r_max) and population densities. These data were used to estimate extraction versus maximum sustainable production (MSP) and make a preliminary estimate of the sustainability of hunting. There were significant negative relationships between increasing body size and decreasing r_max and decreasing population densities, which were further influenced by phylogeny and diet, and appear very similar to relationships found for placental mammals in Afrotropical and Neotropical forests. The estimated biomass of mid-sized marsupial mammals (923 kg/km²) in Papua New Guinea is also comparable with densities of placental mammals in other evergreen tropical forests. Intrinsic rates of increase ranged from 0.28 for tree-kangaroos (Macropodidae) and 0.29 for cuscus (Phalangeridae), up to 5.14 for bandicoots/echymipera (Peroryctidae). Estimated population densities ranged from 0.4-4.0 animals/km² for long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus sp.) to 150-340 animals/km² for ringtails (Pseudocheridae). Extraction rates of game in three studies averaged 23.5 ± 9.9 kg/km²/year, with cuscus and bandicoot species numerically comprising the main game, although cuscus are the most important source of protein. Rates of extraction in Papua New Guinea versus rates of production demonstrate that long-beaked echidna, tree-kangaroos and cuscus are likely to be hunted unsustainably. In contrast hunting of bandicoots and ringtails was lower than maximum production levels, and the high intrinsic rate of increase of bandicoots means that they can potentially provide a sustainable source of protein, in preference to scarcer and intrinsically slower breeding species.     

Do domestic cats impose an unsustainable harvest on urban bird populations?

We assessed the impact of domestic cats on population persistence of native and exotic urban bird populations using a model adjusted for habitat-specific catch rates, cat ownership and hunting activity data. GPS-derived home ranges of 32 cats and resource selection indices demonstrated the degree of penetration and preference for native vegetation fragments. Owners reported on prey brought back by 144 domestic cats in Dunedin, New Zealand, during 12 months. One third of cats never brought back prey, and 21% returned more than one item/month. Cats brought back a mean of 13.4 prey items/year (median = 4), with cats aged <1 year returning more prey than older cats. Birds were the most common prey, followed by rodents. Although cats penetrated adjacent vegetation fragments they did not catch more birds and preferred garden habitat, suggesting that predation pressure may be reduced in fragments. Cat home range size appears to be constrained by cat density while the number of birds caught depends on the density of available prey. Estimates of city-wide catch for six bird species were either more than total urban population size estimates or close to lower confidence intervals. Modelling of three species indicated low likelihood of population persistence with cat predation. The observed persistence of these prey species suggests a meta-population structure with urban populations acting as sinks with source populations located on the city fringe.     

Evaluating effects of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño events on a threatened lemur

Madagascar ranks as one of the world’s top extinction hotspots because of its high endemism and high rate of habitat degradation. Global climate phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillations may have confounding impacts on the island’s threatened biota but these effects are less well known. We performed a demographic study of Propithecus edwardsi, a lemur inhabiting the eastern rainforest of Madagascar, to evaluate the impact of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño on its population and to re-evaluate present endangerment categorization under the IUCN. Over 18 years of demographic data, including survival and fecundity rates were used to parameterize a stochastic population model structured with three stage classes (yearlings, juveniles, and adults). Results demonstrate that hunting and deforestation are the most significant threats to the population. Analysis of several plausible scenarios and combinations of threat revealed that a 50% population decline within three generations was very likely, supporting current IUCN classification. However, the analysis also suggested that changing global cycles may pose further threat. The average fecundity of lemurs was over 65% lower during El Niño years. While not as severe as deforestation or hunting, if El Niño events remain at the current high frequency there may be negative consequences for the population. We suggest that it is most critical for this species continued survival to create more protected areas, not only to thwart hunting and deforestation, but also to give this endangered lemur a better chance to recover from and adapt to altered climate cycles in the future.     

Differential impact of bushmeat hunting on monkey species and implications for primate conservation in Korup National Park, Cameroon

Bushmeat hunting is one of the primary threats to many large-bodied vertebrate species in African forests. However, species vary in their degree of vulnerability to hunting. We investigated the impact of hunting on monkey species in Cameroon’s Korup National Park (KNP) and examined how vulnerability to hunting varies among species. Data on primate abundance and hunting intensity were collected along 10 line transects, distributed across three survey areas in KNP. We assessed how the relative abundance of seven monkey species spatially varied between heavily and lightly hunted areas and evaluated temporal changes in the relative abundance and proportional representation of these species at a single hunted forest site and in bushmeat harvests. The putty-nosed and mona monkeys are most tolerant to heavy hunting pressure whereas the crowned monkey, drill, and red colobus are among the most vulnerable. At our heavily hunted survey site, the overall relative density of monkey groups increased through time but primate species richness declined. The proportional representation of Cercopithecus species, especially putty-nosed monkeys, increased through time, possibly due to competitive release. We also observed an increase in the proportional representation of the putty-nosed and mona monkeys and a reduced percent contribution of the red colobus and drill in hunter harvests. We conclude that hunting is driving some of Africa’s most threatened primate species (e.g., Preuss’s red colobus and the drill) to local extinction in KNP. We discuss intrinsic factors of species that might influence their degree of vulnerability and strategies to improve protection efforts in KNP.     

Bringing home the biggest bacon: a cross-site analysis of the structure of hunter-kill profiles in Neotropical forests

Forest vertebrates are critical to the subsistence of many tropical forest dwellers enjoying little or no access to other sources of animal protein. Yet the ecological and socioeconomic value of forest wildlife is being undermined as many large vertebrate populations are driven to local extinction by unsustainable hunting practices. Although large mammals that are preferred by hunters are widely variable in their morphology and ecology, they share a set of life history traits, which make them particularly vulnerable to overhunting. In this paper we compile data on game harvest from 31 tribal and nontribal settlements in Neotropical forests to examine how mammal assemblages are affected by the history of hunting within settlement catchment areas. The structure of hunter-kill profiles is related to settlement age and size in an attempt to understand how changes in hunting pressure may affect prey selectivity and the structure of residual game assemblages. There was a predictable shift from a few large-bodied to several small-bodied species harvested by increasingly older villages. Settlement persistence thus explained a significant proportion of the variation in mean body mass and species richness of mammals harvested. We conclude that differences in prey species profiles obtained by subsistence hunters of different ethnic groups can be largely explained by the local depletion status of game stocks, particularly large mammals, rather than by cultural factors.