Global analysis of the protection status of the world’s forests

This study presents a global analysis of forest cover and forest protection. An updated Global Forest Map (using MODIS2005) provided a current assessment of forest cover within 20 natural forest types. This map was overlaid onto WWF realms and ecoregions to gain additional biogeographic information on forest distribution. Using the 2008 World Database on Protected Areas, percentage forest cover protection was calculated globally, within forest types, realms and ecoregions, and within selected areas of global conservation importance. At the 10% tree cover threshold, global forest cover was 39 million km². Of this, 7.7% fell within protected areas under IUCN management categories I–IV. With the inclusion of IUCN categories V and VI, the level of global forest protection increased to 13.5%. Percentage forest protection (IUCN I–IV) varied greatly between realms from 5.5% (Palearctic) to 13.4% (Australasia), and for forest types from 3.2% (temperate freshwater swamp forest) to 28% (temperate broadleaf evergreen forest). Median protection of forest cover in 670 ecoregions (forest above a specified threshold) was 5.9% (IUCN I–IV); at IUCN I–VI, 46% of the ecoregions had less than 10% forest protection. Considering their biodiversity importance, forest protection within global priority areas was insufficient, e.g., median protection of 8.4% in biodiversity hotspots (IUCN I–IV). Results have policy relevance in terms of the target of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), reconfirmed in 2008, to effectively conserve “at least 10% of each of the world’s forest types”. Regular updates of these analyses would allow progress towards achieving that target to be monitored.     

陕西省生态系统水源涵养功能评估分析

以陕西省为研究对象,基于水量平衡法并结合GIS空间分析与线性回归法,对2000—2014年区域生态系统水源涵养功能动态变化进行科学评估和重要性评价,并以此为方向探讨区域生态红线规划。结果表明:(1)陕西省水源涵养能力南北高,中间低,空间差异显著,单元水源涵养量为0～800.90 mm;近15年水源涵养功能增加区域面积占研究区总面积的86.71%,总水源涵养量呈"整体上升,局部下降"特征。(2)气候要素与水源涵养量相关性较强,植被类型也影响着水源涵养的空间特性。植被类型中,森林是生态系统水源涵养的主体,其中,水源涵养能力为:常绿阔叶林常绿针叶林落叶阔叶林落叶针叶林。(3)研究区内水源涵养量200 mm的区域占总面积的65.12%,整体水源涵养生态价值不高;综合划定水源涵养生态保护红线面积约77 593.31 km~2,占总面积的37.70%,主要分布在秦岭中西部高山区、汉水谷地以南以及延河流域以北,生态系统类型以林地为主。     

The efficacy of Romania’s protected areas network in conserving biodiversity

Romania’s protected areas network currently covers 19.29% of the national territory, a significant increase from the 4.1% protected prior to 1989. The increase occurred over the past 20 years with the creation of 27 National and Natural Parks, and recently of 382 protected areas as part of the pan-European Natura 2000 network. Considering the recent increase in number and area of protected lands, we investigated two core topics critical to achieving conservation goals: (1) conservation value and (2) resources for conservation. The newly created Natura 2000 sites overlapped 96.19% of the existing protected areas network, generating up to three different protection statuses for some sites. Conservation goals were often unclear, as the focus switched to protecting species and habitats of European-level concern. Despite the fivefold increase in protected area, many ecoregions were poorly represented in the new system. Planning for conservation neither involved the local communities nor utilized principles for spatial prioritization. Over 80% of the species of European conservation concern were included in at least one protected area, but plants and invertebrates were underrepresented. Administrative bodies were generally under-staffed and poorly financed, conditions that were reflected in a poor enforcement and implementation of conservation goals. Overall, Romania shares many conservation concerns with other Eastern and Central European countries. A regional approach to conserving biodiversity based on spatial prioritization, rigorous scientific documentation, and social acceptance is needed for the Natura 2000 network to achieve its goals.     

Designing a transfrontier conservation landscape for the Maputaland centre of endemism using biodiversity, economic and threat data

A number of global priority region schemes have been developed, but local assessments are needed to identify priority areas for conservation within these regions. Here, we describe results from a conservation assessment for Maputaland, part of a biodiversity hotspot in southern Africa that is also the focus of the Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) initiative between South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland. The TFCA seeks to establish new state-, private- and communally-managed conservation areas to boost economic development through nature-based tourism and game ranching. The assessment will guide the TFCA process and used a systematic conservation planning approach to design a landscape to conserve 44 landcover types, 53 species and 14 ecological processes. The assessment also included data on modelled risk of agricultural transformation, of which low-risk areas were selected where possible. The current PA systems in the three countries cover 3830 km², which represents 21.2% of the region, and meet the representation targets for 46% of the conservation features. The proposed conservation landscape adds 4291 km² of new core areas and 480 km² of linkages and, if appropriate, could provide potential revenues of US$18.8 million from game ranching, based on modelled large ungulate density, life history and game auction data. We also discuss the benefits of including data on widely distributed, better known conservation features together with less-well studied, range-restricted species and the advantages of using agricultural transformation risk data in conservation assessments.     

Effectiveness of protected areas in north-eastern New South Wales: recent trends in six measures

We applied six measures of effectiveness to recent decisions about additional conservation areas in north-eastern New South Wales. Three have been widely used previously: (1) number of conservation areas; (2) total extent of conservation areas; and (3) representativeness (the proportion of natural features such as forest types or animal species represented in conservation areas to some targeted level). The other measures were: (4) efficiency or representation bias (the extent to which some features are protected above target levels at the expense of others that remain poorly protected); (5) relative protection of vulnerable areas within public land (percentage protection of flat, fertile areas relative to that of steep and/or infertile areas); and (6) relative protection of vulnerable areas across all tenures (the correlation between the amount of protection given to features and their vulnerabilities to clearing). We applied the measures in two chronological comparisons: the reserve system in 1994, 1996 and 1997; and before and after the Interim Assessment Process of 1996 which involved negotiations over new reserves and extensive unreserved areas that were temporarily deferred from logging. Over the study period, despite expansion of formal conservation and progress towards quantitative conservation targets, gazetted reserves remained strongly biased to the steep and/or infertile parts of public lands. Both gazetted reserves and areas deferred from logging increased the bias in protection away from forest types most vulnerable to clearing and for which regional conservation targets had already been most compromised. Two major challenges for future conservation decisions in the region are common to conservation planning generally: (1) to focus protection within public tenure on habitats and species most vulnerable to threatening processes such as logging; and (2) to provide more effective conservation management on private lands where loss of native vegetation continues.     

基于RUSLE模型的黑龙江省2000-2010年土壤保持量评价

黑龙江省是我国重要的粮食产区,同时也是东北地区重点生态保护区,黑龙江省土壤保持量的研究对维持生态安全与可持续发展有重要作用。基于黑龙江省2000年、2005年和2010年的降雨、土壤、高程等数据,结合GIS空间分析方法,运用修订的通用土壤流失方程(RUSLE),估算了2000—2010年黑龙江省土壤保持量,并对其空间分布及变化趋势进行模拟分析。结果表明:2000—2010年,黑龙江省土壤保持能力整体增强,土壤保持量增加了5.34%,且除牡丹江和哈尔滨地区外,各行政区的土壤保持量均有所增加;各土地利用类型的年均单位面积土壤保持量以森林最多,为3 384.36 t·km-2·a-1,裸地最少,为177.17 t·km-2·a-1,10年来除农田和灌丛外,各土地利用类型的单位面积土壤保持能力均增强;2000—2010年黑龙江省高等级土壤保持量比例及低等级转化成高等级土壤保持量的面积都在提高,黑龙江省土壤保持能力10年来趋于好转。     

基于GIS的福建省水土保持功能重要性评价

[目的] 对福建省水土保持功能重要性进行评价,为该省生态保护红线划定提供科学参考。[方法] 基于GIS技术,利用降水、土壤、数字高程和植被指数等数据,采用修正通用水土流失方程（RUSLE）,估算福建省土壤保持量,并对其分级。[结果] 全省土壤保持总量为2.65×10⁹ t/a,平均土壤保持模数为20 789.82 t/（km²·a）。水土保持功能极其重要区、高度重要区、中等重要区、较为重要区和一般重要区面积分别为3 192.54,8 205.54,15 547.71,21 519.81,74 000.20 km²,分别占全省面积的2.61%,6.70%,12.70%,17.57%和60.42%。[结论] 福建省水土保持功能极其重要区、高度重要区和中等重要区主要分布在闽西和闽中2大山带及其周边丘陵山地区。     

Assessing threats to pool-breeding amphibian habitat in an urbanizing landscape

Geographically-based threat assessments are important for identifying natural resources at risk, yet have rarely been applied to identify habitat conservation priorities for imperiled organisms at a local scale. Pool-breeding amphibians have complex life cycles that place them at risk from habitat loss and fragmentation both in wetlands and in adjacent uplands. Because the most rapidly growing cause of habitat degradation in North America has been urbanization, a threat analysis of pool-breeding amphibian habitat should both be dynamic, i.e., sensitive to land-use change, and comprehensive, recognizing traditional protected area networks as well as less formal conservation assets (e.g., land-use regulations). To assess threats to wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) and spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) in a rapidly urbanizing, forested region of New England (USA) we examined gaps in the current protection network, as well as changing human settlement patterns. We found that greater than 50% of 542 potential breeding pools delineated using low-level infra-red aerial photography (median area 379.5 m²) were not represented on National Wetland Inventory (U.S.FWS) maps, and thus de facto at risk. Most importantly, conservation lands and regulatory protections failed to protect 46% of potential breeding pools and 80% of adjacent non-breeding habitat. While an assessment of human settlement patterns projected that only 5% of the region contained high quality amphibian habitat under acute development pressure, nearly half of the region (44.7%) had attained a moderate threat level, highlighting the importance of conservation planning during early stages of urbanization. We conclude by illustrating the role for multiple conservation strategies when protecting functional landscapes for pool-breeding amphibians.     

生态功能保护条件下的重庆市生态保护红线划分

[目的]划定生态功能保护条件下重庆市生态保护红线,旨在维持生态稳定性及可持续性发展。[方法]选取水源涵养、生物多样性维护和土壤保持等生态系统服务功能重要性因子,以及水土流失、石漠化等生态环境敏感因子建立评价模型,在GIS空间分析技术支持下,开展生态系统服务功能重要性和生态环境敏感性评价,结合研究区现有各类禁止开发区,最终提出重庆市生态保护红线划定方案。[结果]全市共划分出4大类716块生态保护红线区,总面积30 790.91km2,占重庆市幅员面积的37.33%。渝东北秦巴山区、渝东南武陵山区、三峡库区、都市区"四山",以及渝南大娄山区等区域被划定为生态保护红线区。[结论]重庆市近年来大力实施的生态保护区建设工程取得了积极进展,对维护和提升区域生态系统服务功能起着积极作用。     

Comparative Study of Static Pile Composting Using Natural,Forced and Passive Aeration Methods

Poultry manure slurry amended with sphagnum peat was composted by natural aeration (NA), forced aeration (FA) and passive aeration (PA). Compost piles were built in trapezoidal shape with a volume of 5 m³. A total of nine replicates, three for each treatment method, were built. A total of 231 thermocouples were used to establish a three-dimensional temperature regime in each pile.

The results showed that, for the selected configuration of aeration pipes and aeration schedule, temperature drop occurred almost two weeks sooner in PA and FA process than NA process. Also, temperature inside PA and NA processes stayed above 55°C for a longer time than FA process. Both FA and PA methods were effective in providing more oxygen. Low O₂ concentrations were measured at the bottom and middle of NA pile and middle of PA pile during the early stages of the process which is an indication of anaerobic conditions. A total mass reduction of 32 percent and volumetric reduction of 16 to 22 percent were observed. The mass reduction was mainly due to water evaporation, around 550 liters of water per each pile. C/N ratio dropped from the initial value of 21.9 to 18.9, 19.8 and 20.9 for NA, PA and FA, respectively.

The influence zone of aeration pipes in FA and PA composting was determined using a statistical procedure involving the verage of absolute differences (AAD) of temperature readings and two-way ANOVA. By comparing analogous thermocouple locations between PA with NA as well as FA with NA piles, it could be established whether inclusion of the aeration pipes affected the temperature at that location. A three-dimensional influence zone was mapped for PA and FA composting. Results indicate that for the selected configuration of aeration pipes and aeration schedule, PA pipes influenced temperatures in the bottom half of the PA pile while FA pipes affected the interior part of the pile. Near the pile surface, aeration was predominantly by diffusion, as these positions were not influenced by the aeration pipes. The results obtained were also verified by Cluster analysis.     

基于RUSLE模型的山西省生态系统土壤保持功能重要性评估

[目的]分析山西省生态系统土壤保持服务功能的空间分布格局,识别山西省土壤保持功能保护的重点区域,为生态保护红线划定和国土空间规划提供参考。[方法]采用修正通用水土流失方程(RUSLE)开展山西省土壤保持功能重要性评估。[结果]山西省土壤保持总量为6.52×10~9 t/a,单位面积土壤保持强度平均为416.10 t/(hm~2·a)。土壤保持功能总体呈现"西北低、东南高,盆地低,丘陵和山地高"的空间分布格局,极重要区、重要区和一般重要区的面积分别占山西省国土面积的23.10%,28.33%和48.57%。[结论]山西省土壤保持功能极重要区主要分布在太行山、吕梁山、恒山、五台山、太岳山、中条山等组成的"多"字形山地地区,在晋西黄土丘陵沟壑区也有一定分布。     

基于InVEST模型的渭河流域干支流生态系统服务时空演变特征分析

渭河作为黄河的最大支流,是生态保护建成区重点之一,对其生态系统服务研究有利于实现流域内高质量发展和生态保护之间的平衡关系,保持流域生态系统服务功能,促进流域生态系统恢复。基于InVEST模型分析渭河流域2000—2018年5期土地利用和干支流生态系统服务时空动态变化,采用相关性分析水源涵养、土壤保持和生物多样性之间的权衡和协同。结果表明:19年间,研究区土地利用情况主要以耕地、草地和林地为主,占总面积的95%以上。流域内水源涵养呈现"先上升后下降"趋势,平均栅格单元产水量542.9 mm,渭河流域干流水源涵养量最高,为6.88×10~8 m~3,其次为北洛河和泾河流域,分别为3.36×10~8,5.04×10~8 m~3。土壤保持呈斑块状分布,流域整体土壤侵蚀状况为微度侵蚀,且渭河流域干流实际土壤侵蚀量总量最高为6.67×10~8 t,其次为北洛河和泾河流域,分别为6.22×10~8,3.13×10~8 t。生物多样性表现为生境质量高区集中分布在生态较好的森林生态保护区,人类活动较为密集地区生境质量较差。研究期间,渭河流域水源涵养与土壤保持、生态质量之间为高度协同关系,其他生态系统服务不显著,不同的土地利用类型对生态系统服务之间权衡和协同贡献值不一致。     

Reed harvest and summer drawdown enhance bittern habitat in the Camargue

The vulnerable Eurasian bittern Botaurus stellaris has recently benefited from conservation actions in several European countries. The Camargue in Mediterranean France holds 8000 ha of reed marshes and 50% of the French bittern population estimated at 300-350 booming males. Although reed cutting in Europe is a current practice, we provide the first analyses on habitat selection relative to reed exploitation. The contribution of reed harvesting and water management was assessed at a fine scale (digitized aerial photographs of 50-cm resolution) based on multi-modelling data analyses. GLMs applied to random and bittern points of 50-m radius showed that bitterns preferred areas with less than 10% open water enclosing 1-year reeds. Only in harvested reedbeds had the water management a significant impact on habitat selection, with bitterns avoiding areas dried during less than two months and flooded since less than 8 months. Water edge played a role in non-harvested reeds only, with bittern seeking for areas with the highest ratio water edge to open water. Although reed cutting is generally considered as detrimental in the short term, two 4-year experiments showed a marked increase in bitterns the first spring after cutting was interrupted. Based on these results, we propose various management scenarios that conciliate economic constraints of reed harvesters and protection of Eurasian bittern populations.     

A gap analysis of Southeast Asian mammals based on habitat suitability models

Southeast Asia is one of the richest reservoirs of biodiversity on earth and home to one of the highest concentrations of endemic species. Many protected areas (PA) have been established across the region, but to date no systematic evaluation of their efficacy has been published because no comprehensive dataset was available which could be fed into an analysis of conservation gaps. We collected the geographic range for 1086 mammal species of Southeast Asia and we built species-specific habitat suitability models for 901 of them. We performed two gap analyses (one based on a combination of distribution models and distribution ranges and one based on distribution ranges only) for each mammalian species, to evaluate the effectiveness of the existing network of PA and to identify priority regions and priority species for expanding and consolidating the network. Our results indicate that 7.5-8.2% of species are not covered by any PA, and 51.6-59.1% are covered only partially. These species are distributed throughout the entire study area and their conservation requires the creation of new PA that can help fill this existing conservation gap. This would be particularly important for species which are endemic of small islands, where species survival is often threatened by the presence of introduced species and habitat conversion. Yet PAs cannot be considered as the ending point of a conservation strategy, because overall, 34% of the species we analyzed (many of which already covered by existing PAs) were at risk of extinction when considering the IUCN red-list criteria. PAs should therefore be considered in a broader framework of all local ecological and socio-economic trends, including the growing human population, growing economy and infrastructure development.     

Dynamic performance assessment of protected areas

Recognizing the importance of preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services, human society has established extensive protected area networks to conserve these resources in recent decades. Are protected areas working as expected? Empirical coarse-scale assessments of this question across large regions, or even globally, tend to answer “yes”, while fine-scale studies of individual protected areas often and repeatedly answer “no”. We conducted a first fine-scale analysis of Brazil’s extensive Amazonian protected area network (1.8 million km²) and have quantitatively estimated conservation effectiveness in light of changing human development pressures in the surrounding landscape. The overall network maintained intact forest cover for 98.6% of protected forest lands, largely agreeing with previous coarse-scale studies. However, detailed examination of 474 individual protected areas unveils a broad range of efficacy. Many protected areas (544,800 km²) experience default protection simply due to their remoteness. Many others (396,100 km²) have provided highly effective protection in the face of substantial human development pressure. Conversely, 12% (38) of protected areas have failed to protect the 27,300 km² that they encompass, and another 7% (23) provide only marginal protection of 37,500 km². Comprehensive landscape assessments of protected area networks, with frequent monitoring at scales matching the patterns of human-caused disturbances, are necessary to ensure the conservation effectiveness and long term survival of protected areas in rapidly changing landscapes. The methods presented here are globally adaptable to all forested protected areas.     

喀斯特石漠化生态系统服务价值对生态治理的响应——以贵州花江峡谷石漠化治理示范区为例

为揭示喀斯特石漠化生态系统服务功能价值对生态治理的响应,以贵州花江峡谷为例,将提供产品、涵养水源、保持土壤、土壤肥力、固碳释氧5项功能作为服务价值评估指标,选择生态治理两个时段(前期2000—2005年、后期2005—2010年),基于实测与调查数据,采用物质量和价值量相结合的方法对生态系统服务价值进行了估算。研究区10 a的生态系统类型变化过程中,发生转变的面积14.29 hm2,占总面积的27.7%。其中林分、灌丛、其他生态系统面积有所增加,而耕地、裸岩荒地面积大幅度减少。2000—2005年研究区生态系统类型发生转变的面积11.83 hm2,占土地总面积的22.9%,主要变化区域集中在河岸两侧实施退耕还林区域。2005—2010年研究区生态系统类型发生转变的面积仅占总面积的4.8%,与上一阶段相比转变强度明显降低,变化区域较为分散。研究区生态治理后系统服务价值显著增加,2000—2010年共增加9.61×107元,其中前期增额占18.2%,后期占81.8%。前期年均增长3.49×106元,后期年均增长1.57×107元,后期生态服务价值增长更为显著。其中固定CO2、释放O2价值,产品供给价值和土壤肥力都是服务价值主要组成部分。功能价值的增加一方面源于服务价值低的生态系统向服务价值高的演变(10年间研究区耕地和裸岩荒地向经济生态系统转出868.60 hm2),另一方面归功于生态系统内部服务价值的增加,其贡献率大于80%,是驱动服务价值变化的主导因素。生态治理后生态系统类型间发生明显的空间转变,转变强度、场所与所实施生态治理工程的数量、区域密切相关。治理后生态系统类型间发生转变时间响应较快(前期转变面积占总转变面积的83.0%),但主要服务功能恢复期后才大幅度增加(后期增加功能价值占总增额的81.8%),相比较服务价值变化响应有一定滞后性。     

Nutritional Composition of Iron,Zinc, Calcium,and Phosphorus in Wheat Grain Milling Fractions as Affected by Fertilizer Nitrogen Supply

Fe and Zn deficiencies are global nutritional problems. N supply could increase Fe and Zn concentrations in wheat grain. This study was conducted to determine the impacts of different N rates (0, 122, 174, and 300 kg/ha) on the distribution and speciation of Fe and Zn in wheat grain milling fractions under field conditions. Zn and protein concentrations were increased, whereas Fe was less affected in the flour fractions with increasing N rates. Further analysis with size‐exclusion chromatography coupled with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry revealed that Fe and Zn bound to low‐molecular‐weight (LMW) compounds in the flour fractions (probably Fe‐nicotianamine [NA], Fe‐deoxymugineic acid, or Zn‐NA) were less affected by increasing N supply, representing 3.5–10.9% of total Fe and 2.5–56.6% of total Zn. In the shorts fraction, LMW‐Fe was absent, and LMW‐Zn with higher N supply was over twice as high as that in control and 3–27 times as high as that in the other milling fractions. In the flour fractions, the molar ratios of phytic acid (PA)/Fe and PA/Zn (both less than 30.5) decreased, whereas soluble LMW‐Fe/Zn was not affected with increasing N rates.     

Ecological classification of land and conservation of biodiversity at the national level: The case of Italy

The aims of this study are to describe the ecological classification of land in Italy and to show how the resulting land units can act as reliable frameworks for coarse scale environmental analyses that can be used to implement national conservation strategies. We first collected, homogenised and drew physical thematic maps, which were then linked to biological and human features. We then performed a gap analysis of land heterogeneity compared with Natural Protected Areas and Natura2000 network on the basis of three categories: Total gaps, Partial gaps, and Protected. Moreover, we assessed the conservation status of the land units by summarising the environmental quality using the Index of Landscape Conservation. We identified and mapped 3 Land Regions, 24 Land Systems, and 149 Land Facets. Total gaps account for 28% of the country, Partial gaps for 38% and Protected for 34%. The Natura2000 network is more representative than the system of National Protected Areas of the overall land heterogeneity as regards both the types (18 out of 24) and extent (72%) of the Land Systems. Low conservation status prevails in the Land Facets of the Mediterranean Region located along the coasts and plains on sedimentary deposits, whereas high and very high conservation status is found along the higher belts of the Alpine and Apennine chains. These results highlight the potential use of ecological land classification for biodiversity monitoring and conservation purposes, e.g. when identifying land units that need to be recovered or targeted for enhanced biodiversity and ecosystem services protection.     

Global development and the future of the protected area strategy

Land protection has become increasingly common, and global land protection is now greater than 12%. Prediction of future protected area expansion are uncertain, and depend on understanding the factors that have to date explained the historical pattern and geographic variation in protected area (PA) establishment. We test four major perspectives on factors limiting or facilitating PA creation, differentiating between strict PAs and multiple-use PAs where some resource extraction is permitted. Richer countries had a greater amount of land protection and were more likely to create strict PAs, supporting the view of land protection as an economic amenity, although the magnitude of this effect declines in recent decades. There are also significant differences in amount of protection by political structure, with independent countries tending to protect more land, and education, with countries with high levels of primary education tending to protect more. However, countries with substantial previous protection tend to do less protection and create proportionally fewer strict and more multiple-use PAs. Scenarios of future socioeconomic and political conditions suggest that on balance the amount of protection should increase in many countries, driven by economic prosperity, and by 2030 global land protection is forecast to reach 15–29%. The limiting factor in land protection varies among countries, and sub-Saharan African countries in particular will remain a very hard place for land protection because of low per-capita GDP. Overall, however, more land protection may occur in the next 20 years than has occurred in the previous 20 years.     

张家口市林地与水源涵养功能时空变化及其耦合关系

水源涵养功能是林地最重要的生态功能之一,特别是在干旱、半干旱脆弱山区,对维持区域生态安全和社会经济发展具有重要作用,进行林地与水源涵养功能时空变化及其耦合关系研究可为林地规划和生态建设提供科学参考。该研究以河北省张家口市为例,基于遥感影像数据、气象数据、森林资源清查数据等,运用GIS技术、InVEST模型和SPSS模型系统分析了张家口市林地和水源涵养功能的时空演变特征及其相互关系。研究结果表明：1）张家口市林地分布具有明显的空间集聚特征,研究期内林地面积持续增加。阔叶林所占面积最大,灌木增速最快,针叶林分布面积最小且增速最慢。2）1990—2020年研究区水源涵养功能呈东部及南部高,中部及西部低的空间分布格局,平均水源涵养量先减少后增加再减少。3）研究期内张家口市林地面积与水源涵养功能的空间分布具有一致性。随林地面积增加,水源涵养量呈先增加后减少的趋势,当林地面积达到区域总面积的1/2时,水源涵养量达到峰值。不同树种结构的水源涵养量排序从大到小依次为阔叶林、针叶林、灌木。4）未来张家口市应合理规划经济林与其他树种的种植面积及格局分布,同时注重混交林与原生林的种植,丰富树种多样性,从而充分发挥林地的水源涵养功能,促进张家口市生态建设和保护。