Giardia intestinalis in North Island possums, house mice and ship rats

Giardia intestinalis cysts were detected in faeces from 12.9% of 124 brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) trapped in Auckland, Hawke's Bay, the Wairarapa and Wellington; in faecal material from 61.0% of 77 ship rats (Rattus rattus) from areas of Auckland, Hawke's Bay and Wellington; and in faecal material from 25.3% of 182 house mice (Mus musculus) from the North Island. Possums and rodents in forested areas of Auckland and Wellington city water catchments were infected. The role of wild animals in maintaining and spreading Giardia in New Zealand is discussed.     

Sarcocystis in goats: Prevalence and transmission

Extract

A limited survey to determine the prevalence of Sarcocystis species in goats was carried out during 1977. Feral goats (Capra hircus) are commonly found on farmland in certain parts of New Zealand and, in recent years, many have been captured and slaughtered for export. The goats we examined were part of a largegroup assembled from many properties in the Hawke's Bay area.     

Immunization of lambs against pulpy kidney and tetanus

Extract

Over a period of years it has become standard practice in certain areas of New Zealand to take precautions against tetanus following lamb marking. These areas are fairly well defined and the main regions are those of Hawke's Bay and the southern half of the South Island. In these areas, losses following lamb marking, many being due to tetanus, can be high if no preventive measures are taken. It has frequently been observed that conditions favouring the development of Clostridium tetani accompany certain operations at marking, and that this risk has increased because of the use of rubber rings and searing irons at marking. This was to be expected since anaerobic conditions in deep-seated wounds will favour the growth of Cl. tetani.     

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus isolated from sheep abortions in New Zealand

AIMS: To genotype Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus isolates cultured from sheep abortions submitted to diagnostic laboratories in New Zealand during the year 2000 breeding season. To compare the types found nationally with those found in the Hawke' Bay region in 1999, and strains held in the New Zealand Reference Culture Collection, Medical Section (NZRM) from a study published in 1987.

METHODS: Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus isolates cultured by veterinary diagnostic laboratories in the year 2000 breeding season, from sheep abortions from throughout New Zealand, were typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In addition, seven freeze-dried C. fetus subsp. fetus isolates (strain numbers 2939–2945) from the NZRM, representing restriction types a–g found amongst sheep abortion isolates in a study published in 1987, were typed using PFGE.

RESULTS: In total, 293 C. fetus subsp. fetus isolates from 200 farms were obtained from veterinary diagnostic laboratories. Twenty-two distinct PFGE profiles were identified amongst the isolates. PFGE type B1 was predominant in each region of New Zealand and was identified from 66% of farms overall. Of the C. fetus subsp. fetus restriction types a–g lodged with the NZRM, 3/7 had PFGE profiles indistinguishable from profiles found in the current study. The other four restriction types had PFGE profiles that were unique but similar to those found in the current study.

CONCLUSIONS: PFGE type B1 was predominant amongst the C. fetus subsp. fetus isolates cultured from sheep abortions in each region of New Zealand in the year 2000, as was found in Hawke' Bay in 1999. The similarity between PFGE profiles of C. fetus subsp. fetus sheep abortion isolates from 1987 and 2000, and the relative prevalence of the PFGE groups, suggests that there has been no major genotypic shift in the population of C. fetus subsp. fetus implicated in sheep abortion in New Zealand during this time.     

Animal disease problems in central Hawke's Bay

Extract

Although the diagnostic laboratory of the Central Hawke's Bay Farmers' Veterinary Club was established primarily for work of a purely diagnostic nature, it was felt that a small programme of research dealing with problems of particular local interest should be attempted in parallel with the routine work.     

Veterinarians going to the dogs?

Extract

You Sexy Thing, Mo's Red Hot, Colour Me Blue or Assassin are likely to be some of the names replacing Fido, Mitzi or Willie recorded on veterinarians' surgery cards in the near future. At least this should be the trend since 1 August when greyhound-racing was officially elevated from sport to industry, with on-course totalisator betting allowed for the first time. The in-augural meeting was held at Mount Smart Stadium in Auckland on 15September. Whilst the two Auckland clubs of Awatea and Auckland will share 15 of the 60 permits granted, the rest are divided as follows:—Northland 3, Taranaki 5, Palmerston North 8, Wellington 8, Wairarapa 3, Christchurch 12 and Southland 6.     

The use of salmonella vaccine in outbreaks of salmonellosis in sheep

Extract

Salmonellosis in sheep has become an increasingly important problem on fat lamb and better classes of hill country in southern Hawke's Bay. Outbreaks of the disease most commonly occur in mixed-age ewe flocks, but occasionally outbreaks occur in two-tooths. Most outbreaks occur during the months from January to April inclusive. The mortality rate varies between 2 and 5%, but may be higher if associated with gross errors in flock management. Many outbreaks are associated with mob-stocking techniques (up to 20 ewes per acre), used to clean up rank feed in pastures (unpublished data).     

Candida albicans infection in free-living populations of hihi (stitchbird; Notiomystis cincta)

Abstract

AIM: To describe the occurrence of candidiasis in hihi (stitch-bird; Notiomystis cincta) nestlings, and investigate the carriage and impact of Candida albicans infection in a free-living population of hihi.

METHODS: Mortality of nestlings was investigated in a reintroduced population of the endangered, endemic hihi at Zealandia: Karori Sanctuary, Wellington, New Zealand. Oral and faecal samples were collected from live hihi nestlings, for microbiological examination, between October 2008 and April 2009. All hihi that died and could be recovered were submitted to the New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre (NZWHC) at Massey University, for post-mortem examination. The results were compared with data obtained retrospectively from the National Wildlife Mortality (NWM) database for two other reintroduced populations of hihi on Mokoia and Tiritiri Matangi Islands.

RESULTS: Fifty chicks fledged from 82 eggs hatched during the 2008–2009 breeding season at Zealandia: Karori Sanctuary. Thirty-four live nestlings were sampled from 11 nests, and C. albicans was isolated from gastrointestinal swabs of 13 live nestlings from four nest sites. Eight (62%) of those nestlings survived to fledge, compared with 17/21 (81%) of those that tested negative (p=0.254; Fisher's exact test). Of the 32 hihi nestlings that died during the period of the study, 25 were recovered for necropsy. Histopathological examination revealed candidiasis was a factor in the deaths of four nestlings. An adult hihi that died during the period of the study at Zealandia: Karori Sanctuary was also found to have candidiasis. Retrospective analysis of data from the NWM database revealed candidiasis was also a factor in the deaths of five nestlings aged between 1 and 10 days from Mokoia Island, and of three nestlings <5 days old and one adult from Tiritiri Matangi Island.

CONCLUSIONS: Candida albicans was isolated from 38% of hihi nestlings sampled in this study, and vertical transmission of this organism from parent to offspring is likely to occur. Some colonised nestlings developed ventriculitis associated with Candida spp., but survival to fledging was not significantly different between nestlings that tested positive or negative, although the fate of birds following fledging was unknown.     

Salmonella,Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile,and anti‐microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of sympatric meso‐mammals in southern Ontario,Canada

The role of free‐ranging wildlife in the epidemiology of enteropathogens causing clinical illness in humans and domestic animals is unclear. Salmonella enterica and anti‐microbial resistant bacteria have been detected in the faeces of raccoons (Procyon lotor), but little is known about the carriage of these bacteria in other sympatric meso‐mammals. Our objectives were to: (a) report the prevalence of Salmonella and associated anti‐microbial resistance, Campylobacter spp, Clostridium difficile, and anti‐microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) in southern Ontario; and (b) compare the prevalence of these bacteria in the faeces of these meso‐mammal hosts with raccoons from a previously reported study. Faecal swabs were collected from striped skunks and Virginia opossums on five swine farms and five conservation areas from 2011 to 2013. Salmonella was detected in 41% (9/22) and 5% (5/95) of faecal swabs from Virginia opossums and striped skunks, respectively. None of the Salmonella serovars carried resistance to anti‐microbials. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp., C. difficile, and anti‐microbial resistant E. coli ranged from 6% to 22% in striped skunk and Virginia opossums. Using exact logistic regression, Salmonella was significantly more likely to be detected in faecal swabs of Virginia opossums than skunks and significantly less likely in faecal swabs from skunks than raccoons from a previously reported study. In addition, Campylobacter spp. was significantly more likely to be detected in raccoons than opossums. Salmonella Give was detected in 8/9 (89%) of Salmonella‐positive Virginia opossum faecal swabs. Our results suggest that striped skunks and Virginia opossums have the potential to carry pathogenic enteric bacteria in their faeces. The high prevalence of Salmonella Give in Virginia opossum faecal swabs in this study as well as its common occurrence in other Virginia opossum studies throughout North America suggests Virginia opossums may be reservoirs of this serovar.     

Prevalence and spatial distribution of cattle herds infected with Theileria orientalis in New Zealand between 2012 and 2013

AIM: To describe the prevalence and spatial distribution of cattle herds infected with Ikeda and non-Ikeda types of Theileria orientalis in New Zealand between November 2012 and June 2013.

METHODS: Pooled serum samples collected historically between November 2012 and June 2013 were obtained from cattle herds throughout New Zealand. Each pooled sample consisted of approximately 20 individual cattle samples from that herd, and was provided with details of the spatial location of the herd (n=722). DNA from all samples was tested using two quantitative PCR assays for the detection of T. orientalis (all types) and the Ikeda type. The proportion of herds that were positive for T. orientalis and Ikeda type, or that were positive for T. orientalis but negative for Ikeda type (non-Ikeda positive) was determined for different regions of New Zealand.

RESULTS: The highest prevalence of herds infected with Ikeda type was detected in the Northland (33/35; 94%) and Auckland and the Waikato (63/191; 33%) regions. Only 2/204 (1%) herds were positive for the Ikeda type in the South Island. A high percentage of herds that were positive for non-Ikeda types was detected in the Gisborne and Hawkes Bay (23 (95%CI=13–37)%), Auckland and Waikato (22 (95%CI=16–29)%) and Bay of Plenty (24 (95%CI=10–44)%) regions.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The high prevalence of Ikeda type detected in cattle herds in the Northland, Auckland and Waikato regions represents a risk to naive cattle being introduced into these regions. There is also the potential for resident cattle herds in the Gisborne and Hawkes Bay, Auckland, Waikato and Bay of Plenty regions to experience increased infection with the Ikeda type.

The overall impact experienced by regions will depend on other factors such as the number of herds present and the predominant type of farming, as well as the interplay between tick ecology, cattle immunity and movement patterns of cattle.     

Canine wobbler syndrome: A study of the Dobermann pinscher in New Zealand

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of wobbler disease within a Dobermann pinscher population from three geographical locations in New Zealand. The study population consisted of 138 adults (aged 1–13 years) and 32 puppies (aged 6 weeks to 11 months). Data collected for each dog included age, sex, geographic location, if a choker chain was used or not and, in adults, the following body measurements: dimensions of head length, head circumference, width between shoulders, neck length, height at withers and withers to rump length. In addition, lateral radiographs were taken of the caudal cervical vertebrae of each dog and the radiological abnormalities associated with wobbler disease scored, so that each dog could be assigned to one of three radiological groupings. Based upon a neurological examination, each animal was also placed into one of three neurological groupings. The relationship between radiological and neurological groupings and the independent variables was initially compared using a univariate and subsequently a multivariate analysis.

It was found that 48.8% of the dogs investigated had some abnormal radiological sign associated with wobbler disease, and 32.0% of them showed neurological signs. Dogs with radiological signs of the disease were 5.56 times more likely to have neurological signs. Statistical analysis of the data indicated that more severe radiological and neurological abnormalities occurred in the older dogs. In addition, dogs located in Hawke's Bay region had less chance of showing radiological changes than dogs from the other two regions, Hamilton and Wellington. Twelve of the 32 puppies were examined for radiological and neurological changes over the first year of their life. No abnormalities were detected in puppies under 12 weeks of age, but 28% (n=9) of the 32 puppies over 3 months of age did show some radiological changes. Only 9%(n=3) of puppies showed any neurological signs. Although several pedigree lines were investigated, the lineage data were incomplete, and therefore there was no conclusive evidence that wobbler disease was an inherited trait.

This study showed that, although the radiological signs of wobbler disease were present throughout a wide age range, the associated neurological changes tended to appear at a later age. In both instances, the severity of these changes increased with age.     

The detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in bovine faeces by isolation and the comparison of isolation with the examination of stained smears by light microscopy

The detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis organisms in bovine faeces by isolation was compared with that by the microscopical examination of Ziehl-Neelsen stained faecal smears for the presence of clumps of acid-fast M. paratuberculosis organisms. Faeces were obtained from cattle naturally or experimentally infected with M. paratuberculosis as well as from uninfected cattle. Microscopical examination was an unreliable method for the detection of M. paratuberculosis organisms since the organisms were only detected in 99 (=55.9%) of 177 culturally positive faecal samples. In addition, clumps of acid-fast organisms indistinguishable from M. paratuberculosis were also observed in three of 18 samples from cattle free from Johne's disease and in 18 of 37 culturally negative samples from paratuberculous cattle. When M. paratuberculosis organisms were added to faeces from an uninfected cow, results showed that isolation attempts should be positive when 15 or more M. paratuberculosis organisms per gram of faeces are present.     

Herd-level risk factors for faecal shedding of Salmonella enterica in Spanish fattening pigs

Herd-level risk factors for faecal shedding of Salmonella enterica were investigated in a cross-sectional study on Spanish finishing units. For this purpose, 10 faecal samples were collected from 10 different pens containing pigs close to market weight in a total of 232 fattening units. The total sample size was proportionally distributed according to the fattener census in each of the regions and provinces of the country in order to ensure a sample representative of the entire swine population. All samples were individually examined by culture of 25 g of faecal material. Data regarding characteristics and management of each fattening unit were collected by means of a questionnaire. Logistic regression was used to detect relationships between the detection of faecal shedding of S. enterica and potential herd-level risk factors. The feeding of pelleted feed was associated with an increased risk of culture-positive faecal samples (OR = 2.28; 95% CI: 1.22, 4.26). The odds of a farm being Salmonella positive were associated with its size. Fattening units that slaughtered more than 3500 pigs per year had a higher risk for Salmonella faecal shedding (OR = 1.78; 95% CI: 0.96, 3.31). Interventions at these two points should be considered when designing or managing growing pig facilities to reduce Salmonella faecal shedding by fatteners.     

An acute outbreak of equine dysautonomia (equine grass sickness) in a group of eight Przewalski's horses (Equus ferus [caballus] przewalskii)

Equine grass sickness (EGS) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting grazing equids of which a single case of the chronic clinical presentation has previously been reported in a Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus [caballus] przewalskii). A group of 8 Przewalski's horses were moved to a new enclosure, recently vacated by a group of 4 Eastern kiang (Equus kiang holdereri) that showed no evidence of disease. After 23 days the first Przewalski's horse showed clinical signs of acute EGS including flank sweating, belly kicking, rapid loss of body condition, cessation of faecal passage, nasogastric reflux and mouthing water. It was subjected to euthanasia within 48 h due to lack of therapeutic response. Within 24 h of this first case developing clinical signs, a further 5 Przewalski's horses showed similar clinical signs of acute EGS and were subjected to euthanasia. Post mortem examinations confirmed acute EGS, with all animals demonstrating typical chromatolysis, cytoplasmic hypereosinophilia, cellular swelling, vacuolation, pyknosis and loss of nuclei in approximately 90% of neurones in the cranial cervical and cranial mesenteric ganglia and myenteric and submucosal plexi of the ileum. Two Przewalski's horses within the group showed no clinical signs of disease. No single pathogen was identified as the causal agent, but the epidemiological pattern of the outbreak was typical for that previously reported for acute EGS in domestic equids. All affected animals and the 2 surviving Przewalski's horses had low antibody titres to Clostridium botulinum type C. This is the first report of acute EGS in a herd of Przewalski's horses.     

The occurrence of Clostridium botulinum at aquatic sites in and around Auckland and other urban areas of the North Island

Samples of bottom muds from lakes and waterways in the Auckland area were inoculated into bottles of cooked meat medium. After incubation, the media were tested for reduction of Clostridium botulinum toxin which was detected with samples from 11 of the 20 sites examined. Although toxins produced from all positive samples were neutralized by specific antisera to both type C and D toxins, it is likely that C. botulinum type Cα is the only type present in the Auckland area. All samples from other urban areas of the North Island gave negative results.     

Association of wild bird density and farm management factors with the prevalence of E. coli O157 in dairy herds in Ohio (2007-2009)

Our objective was to determine the role that European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) play in the epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in dairy cattle. We visited 150 dairy farms in Ohio twice during summer and fall months from 2007 to 2009. Fresh faecal pats from 30 lactating cows were collected during each visit. Information on farm management and environmental variables was gathered through a questionnaire administered to the farm owner. The number of starlings observed on the farm was also recorded. Approximately 1% of dairy cattle and 24% of farms were positive for E. coli O157. Risk factors associated with the presence of E. coli O157 in faecal pats included contact between adult cattle and calves, types or number of ventilation and manure management systems and number of birds per milking cow.     

Concentrations of faecal coliforms,Escherichia coli,enterococci and Campylobacter spp. in equine faeces

Abstract

AIMS: To determine the concentration of Campylobacter spp. as well as faecal indicator bacteria; faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci in the faeces of healthy adult horses in a sample of properties in the Canterbury region of New Zealand.

METHODS: The faeces of healthy adult horses (n=59), including ponies, pleasure horses and Thoroughbreds, were collected from eight properties around Christchurch, New Zealand. The faeces were analysed for concentrations of Campylobacter spp and faecal indicator bacteria; faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci. The presence of other animals on the properties sampled as well as the age, feed and health of the horses at the time of sampling was recorded.

RESULTS: Enterococci and faecal coliforms were isolated from all samples, and E. coli was isolated from 58/59 samples. Mean concentrations of faecal coliforms and E. coli did not differ between properties, but there was a significant difference in mean concentration of enterococci between properties. Campylobacter spp. were detected in two faecal samples with one isolate being determined by PCR analysis to be a thermotolerant Campylobacter species, the other C. jejuni.

CONCLUSIONS: This is the first known report quantifying the concentration of Campylobacter spp. present in healthy adult horses in New Zealand. The presence of equine faecal material in water could elevate concentrations of faecal bacteria and therefore needs to be considered as a source of water contamination. The access of horses to waterways and coastal environments may also need to be restricted to prevent transmission of faecal indicator bacteria and potentially zoonotic agents.     

Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in skeletal muscle and blood of ewes from a sheep farm in New Zealand

Abstract

AIM: To determine whether viable Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) is present in skeletal muscle and blood in ewes with and without Johne's disease confirmed histologically.

METHODS: A total of 51 mixed-aged ewes in poor body condition from a farm with a history of clinical Johne's disease were culled and examined at necropsy. BACTEC radiometric culture was performed on samples of skeletal muscle from the biceps femoris, mononuclear cells in peripheral blood (hereafter referred to as blood), and ileum. Histological sections and Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN)-stained impression smears of terminal ileum and mesenteric lymph nodes were examined. Ewes were defined as having confirmed Johne's disease if there was histopathological evidence typical of the disease within the ileum and adjacent lymph nodes.

RESULTS: Eighteen of 21 (86%) ewes with confirmed clinical Johne's disease were culture-positive for Map from sites peripheral to the alimentary tract, comprising 15 from skeletal muscle and 13 from blood. Five of 30 (17%) ewes that did not have Johne's disease were culture-positive, with four from skeletal muscle and one from blood. The likelihood that ewes with confirmed Johne's disease had systemic Map infection compared with ewes without was determined as OR=30 (95% CI=6.3–142.0; p<0.001).

CONCLUSION: The prevalence of Map infection of skeletal muscle and blood in ewes with confirmed Johne's disease was 71% and 62% respectively, and in unaffected ewes was 13% for muscle and 3% for blood.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Skeletal muscle and blood are potential sources of exposure of humans to Map, and the risk appears higher from sheep with Johne's disease.     

Infection by Eucoleus aerophilus in dogs and cats: Is another extra-intestinal parasitic nematode of pets emerging in Italy?

The occurrence of the infection by the lungworm Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) in dogs and cats from Italy has been evaluated with conventional diagnostic procedures. Individual faecal samples from 569 dogs and 200 cats were undertaken to faecal flotation with sugar and zinc sulphate solution. Sixteen dogs (2.8%) and 11 cats (5.5%) scored positive for eggs of E. aerophilus when samples were processed with either of the two flotation solutions. Overall 14 of 16 dogs and eight of 11 cats infected by E. aerophilus showed respiratory symptoms and the most common were general respiratory distress, dry cough, wheezing and sneezing. These results indicate that E. aerophilus is not uncommon and that canine and feline capillariosis is of clinical importance. Given the impact that E. aerophilus infections may have upon animal health and its zoonotic potential, it is strongly advisable to routinely include this disease in the differential diagnosis of (cardio)-respiratory diseases of dogs and cats.     

A survey of feeding,management and faecal pH of Thoroughbred racehorses in the North Island of New Zealand

AIM: To identify feeding and management variables associated with variation in faecal pH within a population of intensively managed Thoroughbred racehorses in New Zealand.

METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted of 16 racehorse trainers in the North Island of New Zealand. Interviews were conducted at the trainers' stables to obtain information on feeding and management of horses, and faecal samples were collected and faecal pH measured.

RESULTS: Ninety-seven percent of the horses surveyed were confined in an area ≤5 × 5 m for ≥12 h/day. Trainer's age, number of years they had trained horses, age and gender of horses, weeks in race training, racing class, frequency of feeding, bedding type, and exercise workload had no effect on mean faecal pH. Acidic faecal pH (pH ≤6.32) was associated with stables with ≤12 horses, and trainers at stables with ≤12 horses offered more concentrate feed than those at stables with >12 horses. Acidic faecal pH was associated with trainers who offered 4 kg of grain as the only form of concentrate fed, or offered ≤2.25 kg hay/day. Horses that displayed stable vices had less acidic faecal pH than horses that did not display stable vices, viz pH 6.70 (standard error of the mean (SEM) 0.135) vs 6.43 (SEM 0.029) (p=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Racehorse management in New Zealand is similar to that observed in other major racing countries. Trainers with ≤12 horses fed more concentrates and their horses had lower faecal pH than those of trainers with >12 horses. Irrespective of management system, it appears important to provide at least 2.25 kg of hay/day ad libitum, to buffer hindgut acidosis associated with diets high in soluble carbohydrate.