Relationship between root uptake-weighted mean soil water salinity and total leaf water potentials of alfalfa

Summary Alfalfa was grown in five laboratory soil columns and irrigated at a fixed average amount per day. One column received tapwater at 6-day intervals; the others saline water (h _o=–12 m) at intervals of 4, 6, 8, and 12 days. The alfalfa was harvested at 24-day intervals. The resulting widely varying distributions of soil water content, pressure potential and osmotic potential were measured in detail. From these data variously weighted mean soil water potentials were calculated and correlated with measured total leaf water potentials. This indicated that in the moist, saline soil columns the alfalfa plants tended to maximize the root uptake-weighted mean total soil water potential and, since the pressure potentials were generally high compared with the osmotic potentials, also the uptake-weighted mean osmotic soil water potential (minimize the uptake-weighted mean salinity). For the drier nonsaline soil column the leaf water potentials were much lower than expected from the soil water retention function. This was attributed to dominant resistance for water flow through the soil and across the soil-root interface.     

Evapotranspiration of citrus as affected by soil water deficit and soil salinity

Summary The extent to which evapotranspiration (ET) of Valencia citrus trees is affected by differing soil water depletions (SWD) and soil salinity regimes was determined during five seasons during which soil salinity levels varied. Three weighing lysimeters, each with a 14 year old tree, were used to measure daily ET and to schedule irrigation to maintain SWD at maxima of 15, 75 and 150 mm respectively. Tensiometers and salinity sensors were used to indicate the in situ soil matric and soil solution osmotic potentials. Total soil water potential was calculated from tensiometer and salinity sensor readings weighted for root density with depth. The total of these for the summer months was found to be linearly related (Fig. 5) to the mean ET/Ep (Ep=A-pan evaporation). The slope and threshold of ET reductions with decreasing soil water potential for the low frequency irrigation treatment (150 mm SWD) show good agreement with the slope and threshold of yield decrease that is calculated from soil salinity in the lysimeter using previously reported salinity-yield relationships. The reduced water uptake due to increasing soil salinity has important implications for soil salinity control, since the lower uptake should in theory increase the leaching fraction. This implies a degree of self adjustment to the leaching fraction when irrigating with increasingly saline waters if water applications are scheduled as for non-saline conditions.     

探析利用电磁法检测非均匀应力状态下钢绞线的预应力

为了研究电磁作用下无粘接预应力结构中钢绞线预应力与谐振频率之间的关系,通过对4.5m长混凝土梁施加荷载使钢绞线的应力产生非均匀变化,并采用LC谐振电路检测钢绞线电磁频率。试验结果表明随着上部荷载的增加,钢绞线的谐振频率呈现有规律的变化。     

黄河三角洲盐渍土蒸发对土壤盐分变化的响应特征

为了探明黄河三角洲盐渍土蒸发对土壤盐分变化的响应特征,采用矿化度分别为5,10,30,50,70,90 g/L的咸水灌溉黄河三角洲0~40 cm土壤,获得不同盐分梯度的盐渍土处理,依次标记为处理T1—T6,并测定各处理的土壤含水率和电导率、蒸发强度和累积蒸发量等指标.结果表明,蒸发过程中表层土壤含水率和电导率均随土壤含盐量增加呈逐渐增加趋势;蒸发结束时,处理T1—T6的土壤表层平均含水率比试验初期降低了80.0%~95.8%,表层含水率的降低幅度随着含盐量增加而逐渐降低;土壤表层电导率分别增加135%~330%,且蒸发前期表层电导率增加幅度明显高于蒸发后期.土壤含盐量对土壤剖面含水率及电导率分布影响差异具有统计学意义,蒸发结束时,处理T1—T6表层0~2 cm比3~6 cm土壤含水率低了8.3%~30.5%,土壤电导率则高了82%~196%,且随着土壤含盐量增加,盐分对土壤剖面盐分分布的影响逐渐增强,表层与深层土壤含盐量差异逐渐增大.蒸发过程中,土壤平均蒸发强度和累积蒸发量随土壤含盐量增加呈降低趋势,处理T1—T6的平均蒸发强度为3.5×10^-4,3.5×10^-4,3.4×10^-4,3.2×10^-4,3.0×10^-4和2.7×10^-4 mm/d,土壤累积蒸发量分别为26.13,26.20,25.50,24.26,22.50和20.58 mm,且蒸发前期各处理的土壤平均蒸发强度及累积蒸发量均高于蒸发后期,土壤含盐量对土壤蒸发的抑制作用主要在蒸发前期.研究表明土壤含盐量可影响土壤剖面含水率与电导率分布以及土壤蒸发强度和累积蒸发量.     

灌溉水矿化度对土壤盐分及冬小麦产量的影响

为合理高效利用河北低平原区浅层地下咸水资源,采用田间试验的方法,系统研究了不同矿化度(1,2,4,6,8 g/L)灌溉水对土壤盐分分布与冬小麦产量的影响.结果表明,随灌溉水中矿化度的增加,0～20 cm厚度的土层土壤容重增加,同时土壤孔隙率逐渐降低.与淡水处理(1 g/L)相比,矿化度为2 g/L的灌溉水浇灌的麦田0～100 cm土层土壤平均盐分含量未出现明显增加;冬小麦拔节期、孕穗期和抽穗期的叶面积指数、株高以及单位面积穗数、穗粒数、千粒质量和籽粒产量未呈现明显差异.然而,当灌溉水矿化度增加到4 g/L以上时,0～100 cm土层土壤平均盐分含量大幅增加,植株生长受到明显抑制,籽粒产量出现显著下降,减产主要因素为咸水灌溉导致的冬小麦穗数减少.在该灌溉模式下,推荐冬小麦咸水灌溉的适宜矿化度低于2 g/L.     

Evaluation of soil salinity leaching requirement guidelines

Water for irrigation is a major limitation to agricultural production in many parts of the world. Use of waters with elevated levels of salinity is one likely option to meet the supply of increased demands. The sources of these waters include drainage water generated by irrigated agriculture, municipal wastewater, and poor quality groundwater. Soil salinity leaching requirements that were established several decades ago were based on steady-state conditions. Recently transient-state models have been developed that potentially can more correctly predict the dynamics of the chemical-physical-biological interactions in an agricultural system. The University of California Center for Water Resources appointed a workgroup to review the development of steady-state analyses and transient-state models, and to determine whether the current recommended guidelines for leaching requirement based on steady-state analyses need to be revised. The workgroup concludes that the present guidelines overestimate the leaching requirement and the negative consequences of irrigating with saline waters. This error is particularly large at low leaching fractions. This is a fortuitous finding because irrigating to achieve low leaching fractions provides a more efficient use of limited water supplies.     

Reduction in growth and yield of Jerusalem artichoke caused by soil salinity

Summary The salt tolerance of irrigated Jerusalem artichokes (Helianthus tuberosus L.) was assessed in terms of biomass of both above ground parts and tubers in greenhouse and field trials. Salinity of irrigation water ranged from 0.7 to 12 dS m^–1 in the greenhouse trial and from 0.2 to 10 dS m^–1 in the field trial. Yield response of the dry matter of tubers of greenhouse-grown plants and of above ground parts of greenhouse-grown and fieldgrown plants, fell within the moderately tolerant category of Maas and Hoffman (1977). However, tuber yields in the field on a heavy clay loam fell within the moderately sensitive category, described by the equation, Y = 100 – 9.62 (ECe-0.4), where Y = yield (t ha^–1) as a % of that under non-saline conditions and EC_e = electrical conductivity of saturation extract in the rootzone (0–30 cm). The Cl concentration of leaves increased linearly with increasing external salinity and increased from tubers to stems to leaves. In contrast, leaf Na remained low except at the highest salinities, despite consistently higher stem Na; indicating some mechanism for restriction of leaf Na up to a certain external salinity.     

暗管排水条件下微咸水灌溉对土壤盐分动态及夏玉米生长的影响

进行暗管排水条件下微咸水灌溉田间试验,设置3种暗管埋深,分别为80 cm(D1)、120 cm(D2)以及无暗管排水(D0),3种微咸水浓度,其电导率分别为0.78 dS/m(S1),3.75 dS/m(S2)和6.25 dS/m(S3),共9个处理,每个处理3组重复.试验结果表明:暗管排水措施可以有效排除微咸水灌溉过程中土壤中累积的盐分;在玉米全生育期内,暗管埋深D1条件下,3种浓度微咸水S1,S2和S3灌溉时根系土壤电导率分别下降了39.00%,31.56%和29.43%,暗管埋深D2条件下,根系土壤电导率则分别下降了31.91%,18.08%和7.44%;夏玉米干物质累积量、穗棒累积量和穗棒质量分配率及最终产量均随着微咸水浓度的升高而降低;在相同微咸水浓度下,不同暗管埋设条件下的夏玉米最终产量从大到小依次为D1,D2,D0;3种暗管埋设条件下的作物需水量从大到小依次为D0,D2,D1的规律;暗管埋深80 cm的处理(D1)下夏玉米水分利用效率最高,而未埋设暗管的处理(D0)水分利用效率最低;当暗管埋设条件一定时,夏玉米水分利用效率随微咸水浓度的升高呈逐渐降低的趋势.     

滴灌条件下沙地土壤水分分布与运移规律

通过对不同流量的滴头,不同灌水历时条件下沙地土壤滴灌湿润体的大小与形状的观测观察,以及对滴灌停止后不同间隔时间的土壤湿润锋运移,湿润体的发展,土壤水分的分布与再分布测量分析,使之对滴灌条件下土壤湿润体的大小及发展、土壤水分的分布与再分布规律等有了比较清楚的认识。本文不进行理论上的土壤水分分布模拟,仅从众多的实测资料分析着手,揭示土壤水分分布与运移规律,旨在为砂壤地玉米滴灌的参数确定（滴头间距、流量、灌水历时等）提供基本依据。通过土壤水分与湿润体实测资料分析认为,滴灌玉米的滴头流量在２．０ｌ／ｈ左右,灌水历时２～３ｈ,滴头间距为５０ｃｍ左右为宜。过长的灌水历时（大于３ｈ）即可能导致灌溉水的无为损失,造成先进的节水灌溉技术条件下新的水浪费问题。滴头间距过密,会加大不必要的工程投资。     

Effect of improved cultural practices on crop yield and soil salinity under relatively saline groundwater applications

The salinity in the root zone increases with the application of relatively saline groundwater. Therefore, a limited water supply coupled with high pumping cost and salinity hazards, makes it more important than ever that irrigation water be used efficiently and judiciously. In the present study, farmer's practices of irrigation application methods (Field 1) were compared with the water saving techniques (Field 2) for crop yield and salinization for two years with maize–wheat–dhanicha cropping pattern. For maize crop, regular furrow method of irrigation was used in Field 1 and alternate furrow method of irrigation was used in Field 2. For wheat experiments, basin irrigation method of water application was compared with bed and furrow method. For dhanicha, basin irrigation was applied in both the fields. The results showed that about 36% water was saved by applying irrigation water in alternate furrows in each season without compromising the maize crop yield. The salt accumulation in root zone in alternate furrow field was less than that in regular furrow field. The salinity level near the surface increased substantially in both the fields. The water saving in wheat crop under bed and furrow was 9–12% in both seasons. The salinization process in both fields during wheat crop was almost same except redistribution of salts throughout the root zone in basin field of wheat. The salinity developed in root zone during two major growing seasons was leached in monsoon.     

Factors affecting the behaviour of soil salinity sensors

Summary The stability of 22 commercially available soil salinity sensors was studied: 23% were considered to be stable under the imposed experimental conditions during a period of 14 months. During the same time period, accuracy of sensors decreased from ±0.32 to ±0.98 mmho cm^–1. Time response is adequate under saturated conditions (Fig. 3) but it may be extremely long for unsaturated soils (Fig. 4 and Table 2). Measurements of the soil solution electrical conductivity with salinity sensors and by the suction probe extraction technique demonstrated that the soil matrix affects the salt distribution near soil surfaces and within the pore space. Time response (63% of total change) of sensor thermistor is 0.9 min, with an estimated accuracy of ±0.3 °C.     

干旱区盐渍化弃耕地不同恢复模式植被多样性及土壤生物学特性

以玛纳斯河流域冲积扇缘定位试验区为研究对象,分析补水恢复处理、人工草地处理和补植处理对盐渍化弃耕地植被多样性与土壤生物学特性的影响.结果表明:不同恢复方式均明显增加了植被多样性、土壤微生物数量及土壤酶活性.人工草地恢复和补水恢复植被多样性分别比原始弃耕地增加25.13%和9.84%,电导率降低49.15%和33.55%,有机质增加99.10%和88.34%,碱解氮增加70.10%和36.57%;人工草地模式土壤脲酶、过氧化氢酶、蔗糖酶、磷酸酶活性分别比弃耕地增加65.18%,47.21%,93.23%和116.03%.土壤微生物数量变化表现由大到小依次为人工草地、补水恢复、补植恢复、弃耕地.相关分析表明,土壤微生物量碳与土壤微生物数量呈正相关,与植物群落的α-多样性呈显著性正相关.研究表明盐渍化弃耕地采用人工种草或灌溉补水措施能够提升地表植被多样性,提高土壤酶活性,显著降低土壤盐分含量并促进土壤养分积累.     

基于磁感式探测的分层土壤盐分精确解译模型

为了精准解译面域尺度土壤盐分特征,有必要建立分层土壤盐分信息精确解译模型。该文应用通径分析方法,研究获得了土壤全盐量、土壤含水率、体积质量、黏粒质量分数、地下水电导率、地下水埋深等作用因子对土壤表观电导率值的方差贡献率及作用强弱排序。依据各作用因子的方差贡献率大小,结合设定的累积贡献率阀值,选取出磁感式土壤表观电导率的主导作用因子,确定为磁感式土壤盐分信息解译模型的参数体系。采用多因子及互作项逐步回归法,通过引入因子间的互作效应建立优化的基于磁感式探测的分层（0～20,＞20～60,＞60～100,＞100～160 cm）土壤盐分信息解译模型。验证结果表明,模型解译误差基本在10%以内,达到了较高精度水平。     

Effect of initial soil salinity and subirrigation water salinity on potato tuber yield and size

A field lysimeter study was conducted to investigate the effect of initial soil salinity and salinity level of brackish subirrigation water on tuber weight and tuber size of three potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars (Kennebec, Norland and Russet Burbank) under simulated arid conditions. Both saline and non-saline initial soil conditions were simulated in a total of 36 lysimeters. Eighteen lysimeters were flushed with fresh water (0.2 dS/m), while the remaining 18 lysimeters were flushed with brackish water (2 dS/m). For each soil condition, two subirrigation water concentrations, 1 and 9 dS/m, were used in nine lysimeters each. For each subirrigation water treatment, three potato cultivars were grown. In all lysimeters, water table was maintained at 0.4 m from the soil surface. Arid conditions were simulated by covering the lysimeter top with plastic mulch, allowing the potato shoots to grow through a cut in the mulch. The average root zone salinities (EC_w) were found to be 1.2 and 1.5 dS/m in non-saline lysimeters subirrigated with 1 and 9 dS/m waters, respectively. The corresponding salinities were 3.2 and 3.7 dS/m in the saline lysimeters. Across cultivars, there was no significant effect of either initial soil salinity or subirrigation water salinity on total tuber weight. However, the weight of Grade A tubers was higher in non-saline soil than in saline soil. Kennebec and Russet Burbank Grade A tuber weights were not affected by the initial soil salinity. On the contrary, a significant reduction in Grade A and total tuber weight under initially saline soil was evident for the Norland cultivar.     

Response of cotton water stress indicators to soil salinity

Summary A field study was conducted on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. c.v. Acala SJ-2) to investigate the effects of soil salinity on the responses of stress indices derived from canopy temperature, leaf diffusion resistance and leaf water potential. The four salinity treatments used in this study were obtained by mixtures of aqueduct and well water to provide mean soil water electrical conductivities of 17, 27, 32 and 38 dS/m in the upper 0.6 m of soil profile. The study was conducted on a sandy loam saline-alkali soil in the lower San Joaquin Valley of California on 30 July 1981, when the soil profile was adequately irrigated to remove any interference of soil matric potential on the stress measurements. Measurements of canopy temperature, leaf water potential and leaf diffusion resistance were made hourly throughout the day.Crop water stress index (CWSI) estimates derived from canopy temperature measurements in the least saline treatment had values similar to those found for cotton grown under minimum salinity profiles. Throughout the course of the day the treatments affected CWSI values with the maximum differences occurring in mid-afternoon. Salinity induced differences were also evident in the leaf diffusion resistance and leaf water potential measurements. Vapor pressure deficit was found to indicate the evaporative demand at which cotton could maintain potential water use for the various soil salinity levels studied. At vapor pressure deficits greater than 5 kPa, cotton would appear stressed at in situ soil water electrical conductivities exceeding 15 dS/m. The CWSI was as sensitive to osmotic stress as other, more traditional plant measures, provided a broader spatial resolution and appeared to be a practical tool for assessing osmotic stress occurring within irrigated cotton fields.     

Water and nitrate distributions as affected by layered-textural soil and buried dripline depth under subsurface drip fertigation

Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the distributions of water and nitrate from a buried dripline discharging an ammonium nitrate solution in uniform and layered-textural soils. Two layered soils, a sandy-over-loam soil (SL) and a loam-sandy-loam soil (LSL), and two uniform soils of sandy (S) and loam (L) were tested. The experimental results demonstrated that dripline depth and layered-textural soil greatly affected water and nitrate distribution. Wetted depth increased with dripline depth and initial soil water content for both uniform and layered soils. The distribution pattern of water in the layered soils was controlled by the layering sequence and the dripline position relative to the interface between two soil layers. Water accumulation occurred in the fine-textural layer of soil for the layered soils. For the sandy-over-loam soil (SL), positioning the dripline below the interface led to much water (89%) moving to the sublayer of loam soil than positioning the dripline above the interface (73%). For the loam-sandy-loam soil (LSL), positioning the dripline in the top layer of loam soil resulted in 77% of water applied distributed in the top layer, while positioning the dripline in the bottom layer of loam soil resulted in 93% of water applied distributed in the bottom layer. Measurements of nitrate distribution showed that nitrate concentration in the proximity of the dripline and of the water accumulation zone approximated the input concentration while nitrate accumulated at the boundary of the wetted volume for both uniform and layered soils tested. The results from this study suggest that the dripline depth should be carefully selected in the design of subsurface drip irrigation systems for layered soils to obtain a target distribution of water and nitrate.     

环渤海微咸水区土壤盐分及盐渍化程度的空间格局

为了探求环渤海低平原区微咸水的农业利用潜力、缓解水资源危机,就需要掌握该区土壤盐分及其盐渍化程度的空间分布格局。本文通过对该平原微咸水区选取127个代表性样点,采集0～60 cm深度内的8层土样进行土壤全盐量测定,并对130个水井的水位埋深及128个地下水样的矿化度进行了测定。采用地质统计学和GIS相结合的方法研究了该区土壤全盐量及其盐渍化程度的空间分布格局。结果表明,除表层土层盐分含量属于强变异强度外,环渤海低平原区其余土层盐分含量均属于中等变异强度。土层盐分的空间自相关距离从表层（0～5 cm）的35.3 km 增加到深层（50～ 60 cm）的59.7 km。研究区各层土壤盐分含量自内陆平原向东部滨海平原逐渐增加,上下土层盐分含量呈相同的空间变化趋势。表层土层属于非盐化土、轻度盐化土和中度盐化土的比例基本相等,而重度盐化土面积较小,5～60 cm土层无重度盐化土分布。总体上,环渤海低平原以轻度盐化土和非盐化土为主,0～60 cm空间上盐分积聚不强,浅层微咸水灌溉存在很大利用空间。     

基于HYDRUS-3D的涌泉根灌土壤入渗数值模拟

针对涌泉根灌流量大且出流边界为柱状,与传统滴灌、渗灌等存在很大差异的问题,依据非饱和土壤水动力学理论,并结合涌泉根灌条件下土壤水分运动特征,建立了具有柱状出流边界的入渗模型,利用HYDRUS-3D对模型进行求解,所建模型通过土壤剖面含水率随时间变化的实测值与模拟值的对比进行验证.结果表明:模拟值与实测值的相对误差在10％以内,两者具有较好的一致性,数值模拟结果可为涌泉根灌系统的合理设计及运行提供理论依据.通过数值模拟方法研究了流量、套管开孔长度对土壤含水率的影响,发现流量越大,水分运移速率越大,随着时间推移流量所引起的差异减小;灌水量相同时,灌水结束后土壤湿润体范围随流量增大略有减小;开孔区长度增加对湿润体形状、大小没有显著影响,但对土壤湿润体内水分分布状况影响较大.     

Effect of brackish water irrigation and straw mulching on soil salinity and crop yields under monsoonal climatic conditions

Fresh water shortages are severally restricting sustainable agriculture development in the North China Plain. The scarcity of fresh water has forced farmers to use brackish water from shallow underground sources, which helps to overcome drought and increase crop yields but also increases the risk of soil salinization. To identify safe and effective ways of using brackish water in this region, field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of brackish water irrigation and straw mulching on soil salinity and crop yield in a winter wheat-summer maize double cropping system. The experiment was in a split-plot design. Six rates of straw mulching (0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, 15.0 and 30.0 Mg/ha) were assigned to the main plots and two irrigation water qualities (i.e. brackish water with salt content of 3.0-5.0 g/L and fresh water with only 1.27 g salt/L) were applied to subplots. The brackish water irrigation significantly increased the salt content at different soil depths in the upper 1 m soil layer during the two growing seasons. Straw mulching affected the vertical distribution of salt in the brackish water irrigation plots and the average salt content of straw mulch treatments (4.5, 6.0, 7.5, 15.0 and 30.0 Mg/ha) within the 0-20, 20-40 and 0-100 cm soil depths was 10.2, 14.0 and 1.8% lower than that without straw mulch (A₀). No salt accumulation occurred to a depth of 1 m in the brackish water irrigation plots and there was no correlation between the value of SAS (salt accumulated in 1 m of soil) and straw mulch rate. In 2000 and 2001, the salt content within the 0-40 cm soil layer in brackish water irrigation plots increased due to high evaporation rates during April-June, and then decreased up to September as salts were leached by rain. For the fresh water irrigation plots, the salt content remained relatively stable. Straw mulching affected the salt content in the 0-40 cm soil layer in brackish water irrigation plots in different periods of 2000 and 2001, but no correlation between salt content and straw mulch rates was observed except in September of 2000. Unlike for wheat, the yield of maize increased as the straw mulch rate increased according to the equation, y = 0.1589x + 5.3432 (R² = 0.6506). Our results would be helpful in adopting brackish water irrigation and straw mulching in ways that enhance crop yields and reduce the risk of soil salinization. However, long-term effects of brackish water irrigation and straw mulching on soil salinity and crop yield need to be further evaluated for sustainability of the system.     

Grapefruit response to variable salinity in irrigation water and soil

Summary Results are reported from a long-term field experiment designed to determine the effect of irrigation water salinity on the yield and water uptake of mature grapefruit trees. Treatments were started in 1970 and consisted of chloride concentrations in the irrigation water of 7.1, 11.4 and 17.1 meq/1 added as NaCl+CaCl₂ at a 1 : 1 weight ratio.For the last four years of the experiment, 1973 to 1976, yield was linearly related to the mean chloride concentration in the soil saturation extract weighted according to the distribution of water uptake with depth and time (Fig. 2, Table 1). There was a 1.45% (1.68 Mg/ha) yield reduction for each 1 meq/1 increase in chloride concentration above a threshold value of 4.5 meq/1. This corresponded to a 13.5% (14.7 Mg/ha) decrease per 1 mmho/cm increase in the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract above a threshold value of 1.2 mmho/cm.Total water uptake was reduced as salt concentration in the soil increased (Fig. 3, Table 2). In the high salinity treatment, root concentration in, and water uptake from, the lower portion of the root zone were decreased. The maximum electrical conductivity (ECe) measured at the bottom of the root zone was 7.90 mmho/cm similar to the values of EC, obtained by linear extrapolation to zero yield and also to zero water uptake.Salt accumulation in the soil depended on the quantity and salt concentration of the irrigation water, rainfall, and on the amount of leaching. SAR and the Na⁺ concentration of the soil remained low throughout the experiment (Table 3). No leaf symptoms of either Cl^– or Na⁺ injury were observed. The results indicate an osmotic — rather than a specific ion effect — of salinity on grapefruit yield.Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel. 1977 Series No. 197-E