The biology of nematodes of the family Capillariidae Neveu-Lemaire, 1936

The present knowledge of the life cycles of nematodes of the family Capillariidae is reviewed and these data are considered from the viewpoint of a new system of the classification of genera in this family (Moravec 1982). An analysis of the relevant literature as also own studies have shown that, in this nematode group, there occur both direct (homoxenous) life cycles without an intermediate host (Baruscapillaria, Pseudocapillaria, Calodium, Pseudocapillaroides, partly also Capillaria, Eucoleus and Aonchotheca) and heteroxenous cycles with participation of obligate intermediate hosts that are usually oligochaetes and rarely fishes (Schulmanela, Pearsonema, partly also Capillaria, Eucoleus and Aonchotheca). A remarkable case is the species Aonchotheca philippinensis, an intestinal parasite of man, with alternative life cycles, i.e. either with participation of the intermediate host or without it (autoinfection), this being dependent on whether eggs or larvae are produced by the female parasites. The transmission of some capillariid species with a direct life cycle may include paratenic hosts (oligochaetes, fishes). Capillariids undergo four moults during their ontogenetic development, the first of which taking place inside the body of the intermediate host in case of heteroxenous cycles. The present knowledge of the biology of nematodes of the Capillariidae is very incomplete; their life cycles have hitherto been studied (in a different extent) in members of only 9 out of 22 presently valid genera (approximately in 7% of recognized capillariid species).     

Evolutionary strategies and adaptations for survival between mosquito-parasitic microsporidia and their intermediate copepod hosts: a comparative examination of Amblyospora connecticus and Hyalinocysta chapmani (Microsporidia: Amblyosporidae)

The epizootiology, transmission dynamics, and survival strategies employed by two mosquito-parasitic microsporidia that utilize copepods as intermediate hosts are examined in relation to the biological attributes of their hosts and the environments in which they inhabit. Amblyospora connecticus Andreadis, 1988, a parasite of Ochlerotatus cantator (Coquillett) and Acanthocyclops vernalis (Fischer) is found in an unstable salt marsh environment that is subject to periodic flooding and drying. Both hosts have distinct non-overlapping generations. A. connecticus exhibits a well-defined seasonal transmission cycle that relies heavily on maternal-mediated transovarial transmission by female O. cantator during the summer, and horizontal transmission via the copepod host during the spring (copepod to mosquito) and fall (mosquito to copepod). Its survival strategies include: delayed virulence, low pathogenicity and high tissue specificity that allow for transstadial transmission of horizontally acquired infections and maximum spore production, reliance on living hosts throughout most of its life cycle with overwintering in the copepod, polymorphic development that is well synchronized with host physiology, and production and dissemination of infectious spores that are coincident with the seasonal occurrence of susceptible stages in each host. Hyalinocysta chapmani Hazard et Oldacre, 1975, a parasite of Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) and Orthocyclops modestus (Herrick) is found in a comparatively stable, subterranean habitat that is inundated with water throughout the year. Copepods are omnipresent and C. melanura has overlapping broods. H. chapmani is maintained in a continuous cycle of horizontal transmission between each host throughout the summer and fall but lacks a developmental sequence leading to transovarial transmission in the mosquito host. It relies on living hosts for most of its life cycle and overwinters in diapausing mosquito larvae. Transstadial transmission does not occur and there is no dimorphic development in the mosquito host. The spatial and temporal overlap of both mosquito and copepod hosts during the summer and fall affords abundant opportunity for continuous horizontal transmission and increases the likelihood that H. chapmani will find a target host, thus negating the need for a transovarial route. It is hypothesized that natural selection has favoured the production of meiospores in larval female mosquitoes rather than congenital transfer of infection to progeny via ovarian infection as a strategy for achieving greater transmission success. Analysis of the molecular phylogeny data suggest that (1) transovarial transmission and the developmental sequence leading to ovarian infection have been secondarily lost in H. chapmani, as they occur in all other closely related genera, (2) the ancestral state included complex life cycles involving transovarial transmission and an intermediate host, and (3) mosquito-parasitic microsporidia are adjusting their life cycles to accommodate host ecological conditions.     

On the problem of retarding definitive host (s.l.)

The significance of the species and individual level in determining the hosts as a category of helminth life cycles is pointed out. From the viewpoint of species level, the categories of intermediate host and definitive host are ascribed to certain organisms as representatives of a certain species on the basis of the fact that a respective stage of helminth life cycle can take place inside them. From the viewpoint of individual level, these types of hosts are determined on the basis of associations between the helminth individual and host individual. In order to avoid discrepancies, which might occur in determining the host type in these ways, it is proposed that the organism, which was determined as intermediate or definitive host at the species level, should be regarded identically also at the individual level. In addition, the existence of retarding definitive host (s.l.) is substantiated on the example of helminths which survived the interorgan migrations and passed to the offsprings through the intrauterine or transmammary route.     

Importance of the life cycle in sympatric host race formation and speciation of pathogens

ABSTRACT Numerous morphological species of pathogenic fungi have been shown to actually encompass several genetically isolated lineages, often specialized on different hosts and, thus, constituting host races or sibling species. In this article, we explore theoretically the importance of some aspects of the life cycle on the conditions of sympatric divergence of host races, particularly in fungal plant pathogens. Because the life cycles classically modeled by theoreticians of sympatric speciation correspond to those of free-living animals, sympatric divergence of host races requires the evolution of active assortative mating or of active host preference if mating takes place on the hosts. With some particular life cycles with restricted dispersal between selection on the host and mating, we show that divergence can occur in sympatry and lead to host race formation, or even speciation, by a mere process of specialization, with strong divergent adaptive selection. Neither active assortative mating nor active habitat choice is required in these cases, and this may explain why the phylo-genetic species concept seems more appropriate than the biological species concept in these organisms.     

An Analysis of Host Adaptation and Its Relationship with Virulence in Cucumber mosaic virus

ABSTRACT The host range of a pathogen can have special consequences on its evolution and the evolution of its virulence. For generalists, adaptation to different hosts may be conditioned by different trade-offs in the pathogen's life history and be affected by evolutionary processes that shape pathogen populations. We have examined adaptation of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) to different hosts, and analyzed the relationship between host adaptation and virulence. For this, six CMV isolates from central Spain from three different hosts were compared for the ability to multiply and to affect host growth. These analyses were done before and after an experimental evolution process consisting of 10 serial passages in the original host of the isolate. The differential capacity to infect different hosts was compatible with host adaptation. However, the capacity to multiply in different hosts did not provide evidence of host adaptation and was not improved after 10 passages, suggesting that fitness of the natural population of CMV was at, or near to, its maximum. No relationship was found between capacity of multiplication and virulence in any of the three different hosts. These results suggest that the "trade-off" model for the evolution of virulence may not apply to CMV.     

Genetic Diversity in Poplar Leaf Rust (Melampsora medusae f. sp. deltoidae) in the Zones of Host Sympatry and Allopatry

ABSTRACT Poplar leaf rust caused by Melampsora medusae f. sp. deltoidae is a widespread disease in North America, where epidemics occur within zones of sympatry and allopatry of telial hosts (Populus spp.) and aecial hosts (Larix spp.). To test the hypothesis that epidemics originate in the zone of sympatry where the rust can complete its life cycle, populations in sympatry and allopatry were analyzed with single-strand conformational polymorphism for codominant detection of alleles directly from uredinia. More alleles were detected in rust populations in the zone of host sympatry than in allopatry. Almost all alleles found in the zone of allopatry were a subset of the allelic diversity present in the zone of host sympatry. Distance analyses clustered populations according to geographic origin, but not sampling year or type of stand (plantation or natural stands). Large differences in allelic and genotypic frequency were observed between years in allopatry but not in sympatry, suggesting new colonizations in allopatric populations. Our results point to a dynamic and complex pattern of inoculum dissemination in polar leaf rust. The hypothesis most consistent with our results is that populations in sympatry represent a source of inoculum for epidemics, with some annual recolonization in allopatry, possibly via intermediate population jumps.     

Effects of host-immunity on the life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes Koch, 1844 (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae)

Studies of the effects of host-immunity on the life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes were carried out by allowing the ticks to feed on New Zealand white rabbits under laboratory conditions. The immunity of the rabbit host significantly affected the life cycle of this tick, reducing the percentage recovery of engorged females, their engorged weights and the total number of eggs laid by these females. The viability of the eggs laid by them was also considerably reduced compared to the eggs laid by females fed on naive rabbit hosts. The effects of host immunity were also revealed in the tendency towards three-host development of this species, which otherwise behaved as a two-host tick when fed on non-immune rabbit hosts.     

Effect of the Host and Temperature on the Formation of Defective RNAs Associated with Broad bean mottle virus Infection

ABSTRACT Previously, we demonstrated that Broad bean mottle virus (BBMV), a member of the genus Bromovirus, could accumulate RNA 2-derived defective interfering (DI) RNAs during infection. In this work, we study how host and environmental factors affect the accumulation of DI RNAs. Serial passages of BBMV through selected plant species reveal that, with low-multiplicity inocula, some systemic hosts (Vicia faba, Nicotiana clevelandii, and N. tabacum cv. Samsum) support DI RNA accumulation after the first passage cycle but other hosts (Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, and Glycine max) do not. However, several passages with the high-multiplicity inocula can generate DI RNAs in pea plants. Local lesion hosts (Chenopodium quinoa, C. amaranticolor, and C. murale) remain free of the DI RNA components. The size of the de novo-formed DI RNAs depends on the host and on environmental conditions. For instance, broad bean plants cultivated in a greenhouse or in a growth chamber at 20 degrees C accumulated DI RNAs of 2.4 or 1.9 kb in size, respectively. A reverse trend was observed in pea plants. Lower temperatures greatly facilitated the formation of DI RNAs in broad bean and pea hosts after the first passage. The importance of these findings for the studies on DI RNAs are discussed.     

Combined effect of nucleopolyhedrovirus and Microplitis pallidipes for the control of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua

BACKGROUND: Nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeNPV) and Microplitis pallidipes are important biological control agents of Spodoptera exigua populations. The interactions between these agents and their combined effect on pest control were investigated in the laboratory and in commercial greenhouses. RESULTS: Microplitis pallidipes searched for and deposited eggs in more healthy larvae than virus‐infected larvae 3 days after viral infection. Each female parasitoid that developed in a virus‐infected host oviposited in a virus‐infected host, or emerged from a cocoon carrying virus transmitted to 4.0, 7.6 or 2.4 healthy larvae respectively. Each female parasitoid exposed to a mixture of virus and 10% honey water solution transmitted the virus to 2.2 healthy larvae. In an experiment with cabbage growing in commercial greenhouses, the pest population reduction was greater by M. pallidipes carrying SeNPV (82.3–89.7% reduction) than by parasitoids without virus (59.5–62.4% reduction). CONCLUSIONS: Control of S. exigua was greater with M. pallidipes plus SeNPV than with M. pallidipes alone. Microplitis pallidipes preferred healthy hosts to infected hosts. Parasitoids were able to complete their development in virus‐infected hosts before the hosts died from the virus infection. The parasitoid ovipositors contaminated with the virus could carry and transmit SeNPV. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Population differentiation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Puccinia coronata</Emphasis> between hosts –implications for the epidemiology of oat crown rust

The fungus Puccinia coronata Corda. is the causal agent of crown rust on oats (Avena sativa) and grasses and the disease is a major problem in oat production causing devastating yield losses. The population biology of P. coronata in oat fields and on the aecial host in central Sweden was studied to get a deeper understanding of the role of the aecial hosts in the epidemiology of the disease. Samples were collected from the aecial hosts common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus), and three adjacent spring oat (Avena sativa) fields. Microsatellite markers were used to evaluate the relationships between populations sampled from the different hosts. According to our results F. alnus can be excluded as a part of the oat crown rust disease cycle. The results further show that samples collected from the aecial host were genetically separate from the population sampled in adjacent oat fields. Concurrently, the genotypic variation of P. coronata observed within oat fields was high. No population differentiation was observed within or between samples collected from different fields within the region, suggesting that airborne spores from other than the sampled specimens of the aecial hosts were contributing to the genetic diversity of P. coronata f. sp. avenae in the selected oat fields.     

Presence of less-preferred hosts of the aphid parasitoids <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphidius ervi</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Praon volucre</Emphasis> reduces parasitism efficiency

Parasitoids are characterized by a defined range of hosts, either more specialist or generalist. Under natural conditions, females may encounter different host species on the same plant or in the same location. In this case, their preference for one host could influence their choice. However, the presence of less suitable hosts may also affect their choice and, in some cases, may reduce their interest in a patch where both preferred and less preferred hosts are available. The aim of the present study was to test the consequences of the simultaneous presence of three cereal aphids (Sitobion avenae Fabricius, Metopolophium dirhodum Walker, and Rhopalosiphum padi Linnaeus) on the parasitism by two of their parasitoids, Aphidius ervi Haliday and Praon volucre Haliday. Firstly, in the no-choice experiment, A. ervi parasitized on S. avenae at a significantly higher rate as compared to M. dirhodum, whereas no parasitism on R. padi was observed. P. volucre parasitized the three species of cereal aphids with a significant preference for S. avenae. Interestingly, when two or three host species were offered simultaneously in the same quantity to pairs of parasitoids, the level of parasitism was less than that observed for one host species alone. This observation exhibits a distractive effect on non-host species, from the defense mechanism of a non-suitable host or from the perception of bad quality patches. These results raise the question of the practical application of inundative release of parasitoids for biocontrol when several hosts are available simultaneously.     

Differentiation of three whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses from the Republic of Yemen

Three viruses collected in southern Yemen in 1990, infecting watermelon, tobacco and tomato were shown to be transmitted by the whiteflyBemisia tabaci and to have particle morphologies typical of geminiviruses. Colonies ofB. tabaci collected from different locations and from different hosts were used in virus transmission tests with the same host range of plants. Colonies established from both watermelon and cotton in the Yemen were identified as the squash silverleaf-inducing B biotype. The culture host of the colony did not influence virus acquisition and transmission efficiencies to and from other hosts. The tobacco and tomato geminiviruses had a similar host range, but differed in their severity in some hosts. Both these viruses differed from the watermelon geminivirus in host range and symptoms.Datura stramonium, an alternative host for all three viruses, could be co-infected by the watermelon and tobacco viruses.B. tabaci was able to acquire both viruses from the co-infectedD. stramonium and infect seedlings of either original host plant species with their respective viruses orD. stramonium with both. The viruses were identified as watermelon chlorotic stunt virus, tobacco leaf curl virus and tomato yellow leaf curl virus and were distinguished by cross hybridisation.     

Impact of neem and chinaberry fruit extracts on the pest/parasitoid (Pieris rapae/Hyposoter ebeninus) interactions

A new technique was performed to simulate exposure of the host Pieris rapae larvae to both botanical treatment and the parasitoid Hyposoter eheninus in different sequences. It was found that: host larvae subjected to both parasitoid and 1% neem treatment showed significant or insignificant reductions both in pupal formation as well as adult emergence percentages when treatment preceded or followed parasitism, respectively. Both neem treatments revealed significant prolongation in the development of unparasitized and parasitized larvae (on average 4 to 5 days delay), whereas chinaberry caused significant prolongation only among parasitized larvae (on average 2.7 days delay in egg-larval duration). Fate of parasitism among untreated hosts was found to be faster than among neem-treated ones. Parasitism percentages among 1 and 0.5% neem-treated third instar host larvae held 7 days before parasitism reached 3 and 2 times that achieved among those reared on untreated diet for the same period, ­respectively.It was concluded that prolongation of the preferred target instars of the host, due to neem treatments, increased the chance for parasitism. Nevertheless, treatment with neem at the LC₅₀ level exhibited a great reduction in parasitoid progeny. However, a lower concentration (LC₂₅) could reasonably potentiate parasitism without drastic losses in parasitoid emergence.     

Impact of neem and chinaberry fruit extracts on the pest/parasitoid (Pieris rapae/Hyposoter ebeninus) interactions

A new technique was performed to simulate exposure of the host Pieris rapae larvae to both botanical treatment and the parasitoid Hyposoter eheninus in different sequences. It was found that: host larvae subjected to both parasitoid and 1% neem treatment showed significant or insignificant reductions both in pupal formation as well as adult emergence percentages when treatment preceded or followed parasitism, respectively. Both neem treatments revealed significant prolongation in the development of unparasitized and parasitized larvae (on average 4 to 5 days delay), whereas chinaberry caused significant prolongation only among parasitized larvae (on average 2.7 days delay in egg-larval duration). Fate of parasitism among untreated hosts was found to be faster than among neem-treated ones. Parasitism percentages among 1 and 0.5% neem-treated third instar host larvae held 7 days before parasitism reached 3 and 2 times that achieved among those reared on untreated diet for the same period, ­respectively.It was concluded that prolongation of the preferred target instars of the host, due to neem treatments, increased the chance for parasitism. Nevertheless, treatment with neem at the LC₅₀ level exhibited a great reduction in parasitoid progeny. However, a lower concentration (LC₂₅) could reasonably potentiate parasitism without drastic losses in parasitoid emergence.     

Contrasting genetic structure between Magnaporthe grisea populations associated with the golf course turfgrasses Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) and Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyugrass)

Gray leaf spot (GLS) disease of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) in golf courses in California was first noted in 2001 and 2003, respectively, and within 5 years had become well established. The causal agent of the disease is the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, which is known to consist primarily of clonal lineages that are highly host specific. Therefore, our objective was to investigate host specificity and population dynamics among isolates associated primarily from perennial ryegrass and kikuyugrass since the disease emerged at similar times in California. We also obtained isolates from additional hosts (tall fescue, St. Augustinegrass, weeping lovegrass, and rice) and from the eastern United States for comparative purposes. A total of 38 polymorphic amplified fragment length polymorphism makers were scored from 450 isolates which clustered by host with high bootstrap support (71 to 100%). Genetic structure between kikuyugrass and perennial ryegrass isolates differed significantly. Isolates from kikuyugrass were genotypically diverse (n = 34), possessed both mating types, and some tests for random mating could not be rejected, whereas isolates from perennial ryegrass were less genotypically diverse (n = 10) and only consisted of a single mating type. Low genotypic diversity was also found among the other host specific isolates which also only consisted of a single mating type. This is the first study to document evidence for the potential of sexual reproduction to occur in M. grisea isolates not associated with rice (Oryza sativa). Moreover, given the significant host specificity and contrasting genetic structures between turfgrass-associated isolates, the recent emergence of GLS on various grass hosts in California suggests that potential cultural practices or environmental changes have become conducive for the disease and that the primary inoculum may have already been present in the state, despite the fact that two genotypes associated with perennial ryegrass and St. Augustinegrass in California were the same as isolates collected from the eastern United States.     

Identification of the Chinese Box Orange (Severinia Buxifolia) as an Alternative Host of the Bacterium Causing Citrus Huanglongbing

The Chinese box orange (Severinia buxifolia) was shown by graft-inoculation and psyllid-transmission tests to be an alternative host of the bacterium causing citrus Huanglongbing (HLB). A PCR-based assay for detection of the HLB bacterium (HLBB) was used to monitor HLBB. In graft-inoculation tests, the Chinese box orange (CBO) grafted with HLBB-infected scions of Luchen sweet orange (LSO) were positive for HLBB, 2–3 months after grafting. The back-grafting test demonstrated that HLBB-infected CBO scions could transmit HLBB back to LSO hosts via grafting. In psyllid-transmission tests, psyllids (insect vectors) transmitted HLBB to CBO plants, in which HLBB could be detected 3–4 months after inoculation. Acquisition-access tests of psyllids revealed that HLBB-free psyllids can acquire HLBB from diseased CBO hosts and can transmit HLBB back to the LSO plants. A field survey verified the presence of HLBB-infected CBO plants in the vicinity of citrus orchards. In this paper, CBO is shown to be a susceptible host plant in which HLBB can exist and replicate. It is also a donor plant from which HLBB can be transmitted to citrus hosts by grafting or by psyllid vectors.     

Host plants of Anoplophora glabripennis,a review

Anoplophora glabripennis (Asian longhorned beetle) attacks many different broadleaf tree species. Although there is no doubt that A. glabripennis can complete its life cycle on species belonging to various genera such as Acer, Populus, Salix and Ulmus, there is conflicting information about the host plant status of many other species. Plant species may have been listed because of maturation feeding or oviposition, without evidence that A. glabripennis can actually complete its life cycle on these species. In the present review, 34 plant taxa that have been listed as A. glabripennis‐hosts are placed in four different categories based on information available through literature search and by personal communication with experts. The categories are: (I) plant species on which A. glabripennis has been reported to complete its life cycle (from oviposition to emergence of new beetles) under field conditions, (II) plant species on which A. glabripennis has completed its life cycle in laboratory or semi‐field experiments (i.e. plants and beetles reared in cages), (III) plant species on which A. glabripennis has been reported to complete part of its life cycle, and (IV) others. The following genera were placed in category I: Acer, Aesculus, Betula, Cercidiphyllum, Fraxinus, Platanus, Populus, Salix and Ulmus. The species Albizia julibrissin, Corylus colurna, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Fagus sylvatica, Koelreuteria paniculata, Malus domestica, Pyrus bretschneideri and Sorbus aucuparia were also placed in category I, although records on exit holes were limited. These species may be rather poor or unattractive hosts on which A. glabripennis may only incidentally oviposit and/or complete its life cycle or the species may be rather uncommon in outbreak areas thus far and, therefore, not frequently attacked. Elaeagnus angustifolia has also been reported to be resistant. For some of the species listed the host plant status may need confirmation. The list of category I species may also become longer in the future because several of the plant species listed only recently appeared to be true hosts, i.e. supporting completion of the full life cycle of A. glabripennis.     

核盘菌侵染循环类型的研究

 对核盘菌科7个种21个代表菌株的研究结果表明,核盘菌分4种侵染循环类型:1.土传病害类型:包括人参菌核病、细辛菌核病和向日葵小菌核病菌,其特点是子囊孢子在侵染循环中不起作用,以菌丝体为初侵染源,病健株接触构成再侵染。2.子囊孢子气传病害类型:包括油菜、黄瓜、大豆、莴苣、萝卜、红花和紫云英菌核病,其特点是气传的子囊孢子致病力强,从寄主的花、衰老叶或伤口侵入,以病健组织接触构成再侵染。3.分生孢子气传病害类型:包括黄瓜、油菜、葡萄和大葱灰霉病,其特点是在自然条件下未见有性世代,以气传的分生孢子从寄生的花和衰老叶侵染,以分生孢子和健病株接触构成再侵染。4气传、种传、土传病害兼有型:包括向日葵菌核病,其特点是子囊孢子从花或茎侵染造成盘腐和茎腐,菌核、带菌种子萌生菌丝体侵染造成苗腐和立枯。病健组织接触构成再侵染。     

Aggressiveness of Phytophthora infestans and phenotypic analysis of resistance in wild Petota accessions in Ecuador

The aggressiveness of four Phytophthora infestans isolates collected from wild and cultivated potato species (sect. Petota ) and the level of resistance of nine Petota species were assessed in the highland tropics of Ecuador. For this, isolates of P. infestans were inoculated on whole plants of Petota species in the field and net house and six epidemiological components – infection frequency (IF), incubation period (IP), latent period (LP), lesion size (LS), lesion growth rate (LGR), and relative area under the lesion expansion curve (RAULEC) – were measured during a single infection cycle. Additionally, host specificity was determined by testing for a significant host by pathogen interaction using the same components. The results showed significant differences among isolates of the EC-1 clonal lineage for IP, IF, and RAULEC. Significant differences among isolates were not found for the other components measured. There were significant differences in resistance among the accessions of Petota hosts tested. RAULEC, LGR, LP, and LS were in general more adequate in differentiating among the more resistant and more susceptible accessions but the importance of each component varied with host species. There was slight and inconsistent evidence for the existence of host specificity in some isolates of Petota hosts. IP was the only component for which a significant host by isolate interaction was observed and in most cases the isolates had the greatest aggressiveness on their hosts of origin.     

A review of Dendromonocotyle (Monogenea: Monocotylidae) from the skin of stingrays and their control in public aquaria

Dendromonocotyle species (Monogenea: Monocotylidae) are the only monocotylids to parasitize the skin of chondrichthyan hosts. Currently 11 species are recorded from the skin of ray species in the Dasyatidae, Myliobatidae and Urolophidae. There have been increasing reports of Dendromonocotyle outbreaks on rays kept in public aquaria. This paper provides a broad review of Dendromonocotyle that should assist taxonomists and aquarists with species identification and help decisions on potential control methods for Dendromonocotyle infections. The taxonomy and host-specificity of Dendromonocotyle are discussed and a key to current species is provided. We summarise what little is known about the biology of Dendromonocotyle including egg embryonation and hatching, feeding, camouflage and reproduction. The efficacy of freshwater baths, chemical treatments and biological control measures such as the use of cleaner fish for Dendromonocotyle is also discussed. We demonstrate that effective control of Dendromonocotyle on captive rays is hampered by the lack of basic biological data on the life cycle of the parasites. A case history is provided outlining the success of a public aquarium (Underwater World, Mooloolaba, Queensland, Australia) in managing D. pipinna infections on captive Taeniura meyeni without chemical intervention simply by taking measures to reduce host stress.