The impact of trophy hunting on lions (Panthera leo) and other large carnivores in the Bénoué Complex, northern Cameroon

In West and Central Africa large carnivores have become increasingly rare as a consequence of rapid habitat destruction and lack of resources for protected area management. The Bénoué Complex (23,394 km²) in northern Cameroon is a regionally critical area for large mammal conservation. In the complex lions (Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are formally protected in three national parks and 28 hunting zones. Over-hunting may be having a strong additive effect precipitating declines in large carnivore numbers across the complex. We used a coarse level track index method to estimate the relative abundance of these three species both in hunting zones and national parks. The results were interpreted with respect to ungulate abundance, and hunting impact. There was no significant difference between the densities of medium to larger species of ungulates in the hunting zones and the national parks, and no difference in leopard and spotted hyena densities in the respective areas. However, lions occurred at significantly lower densities in the hunting zones, and even in the national parks occurred at significantly lower densities than prey biomass would predict.     

Predicting potential habitat and population size for reintroduction of the Far Eastern leopards in the Russian Far East

The Far Eastern Leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis; Schlegel, 1857) is perhaps the world’s most endangered large felid subspecies occurring in a single population of ?30 adults, and faces immediate risk of extinction unless additional populations can be established within its historical range in the Russian Far East. We used locations of leopard tracks (and their ungulate prey) collected from snow track surveys from 1997 to 2007 to develop resource selection functions (RSF) to identify potential habitat for reintroduction. We compared models that include prey versus those based on landscape covariates, and also included covariates related to human-induced mortality. To estimate potential population size, we used a habitat-based population estimate based on the ratio of population size and RSF value of occupied range. Far Eastern leopards selected for areas with high ungulate density, lower-elevation Korean pine forests on southwest facing slopes, and in areas far from human activity. Using this RSF model, we identified a total of 10,648 km² in eight patches >500 km² of potential Far Eastern leopard habitat that could harbor a potential population of 105.3 (57.9–147.2) adults. In combination with the existing population, successful reintroductions could result in a total of 139.2 (76.5–194.6) adult leopards, a 3–4-fold increase in population size. Our habitat models assist the reintroduction planning process by identifying factors that predict presence and potential suitable habitat. Identifying the highest quality, most connected patches, in combination with appropriate selection and training of released animals, is recommended for successfully reintroducing Far Eastern leopards, and potentially other endangered carnivores into the wild.     

Comparison of modeling approaches to quantify residue architecture effects on soil temperature and water

RZ-SHAW is a hybrid model, comprised of modules from the Simultaneous Heat and Water (SHAW) model integrated into the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM) that allows more detailed simulation of different residue types and architectures that affect heat and water transfer at the soil surface. RZ-SHAW allows different methods of surface energy flux evaluation to be used: (1) the SHAW module, where evapotranspiration (ET) and soil heat flux are computed in concert with a detailed surface energy balance; (2) the Shuttleworth–Wallace (S–W) module for ET in which soil surface temperature is assumed equal air temperature; and (3) the PENFLUX module, which uses a Penman transformation for a soil slab under incomplete residue cover. The objective of this study was to compare the predictive accuracy of the three RZ-SHAW modules to simulate effects of residue architecture on net radiation, soil temperature, and water dynamics near the soil surface. The model was tested in Akron, Colorado in a wheat residue-covered (both standing and flat) no-till (NT) plot, and a reduced till (RT) plot where wheat residue was incorporated into the soil. Temperature difference between the soil surface and ambient air frequently exceeded 17 °C under RT and NT conditions, invalidating the isothermal assumption employed in the S–W module. The S–W module overestimated net radiation (R_n) by an average of 69 Wm⁻² and underestimated the 3-cm soil temperature (T_s3) by 2.7 °C for the RT plot, attributed to consequences of the isothermal assumption. Both SHAW and PENFLUX modules overestimated midday T_s3 for RT conditions but underestimated T_s3 for NT conditions. Better performances of the SHAW and PENFLUX surface energy evaluations are to be expected as both approaches are more detailed and consider a more discretized domain than the S–W module. PENFLUX simulated net radiation slightly better than the SHAW module for both plots, while T_s3 was simulated the best by SHAW, with a mean bias error of +0.1 °C for NT and +2.7 °C for RT. Simulation results for soil water content in the surface 30 cm (θ_v30) were mixed. The NT conditions were simulated best by SHAW, with mean bias error for θ_v30 within 0.006 m³ m⁻³; RT conditions were simulated best by the PENFLUX module, which was within 0.010 m³ m⁻³.     

The use of camera traps for estimating tiger and leopard populations in the high altitude mountains of Bhutan

We used camera traps in combination with capture-recapture data analysis to provide the first reliable density estimates for tigers and leopards from the high altitude and rugged terrain in Bhutan’s Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. Fifty days of camera trapping in each of five study zones collapsed into two trapping blocks, resulted in a sampling effort of 4050 trap days. Camera trapping yielded 17 tiger photos (14 left flanked and 3 right flanked) and 48 leopard photos (25 left flanked and 23 right flanked). Using photos of these left flank, the closed heterogeneous Jackknife Model M_h was the best fit for the capture history data. A capture probability () of 0.04 was obtained for both tigers and leopards, thus generating population size (N) of 8 tigers (SE = 2.12) and 16 leopards (SE = 2.91) with densities of 0.52 tiger 100 km⁻² and 1.04 leopard 100 km⁻². Photographic evidence indicated that tigers and leopards did not overlap in their spatial use of space. Tigers preferred less disturbed areas located further away from settlements, while leopards appeared to be more resilient to disturbances in so far as they were found nearer to human settlements. Camera trapping using a capture-recapture framework was an effective tool for assessing population sizes for tiger and leopard in low density areas such as Bhutan.     

Demographic consequences of anthropogenic influences: Florida black bears in north-central Florida

Anthropogenic habitat fragmentation poses a serious threat to conservation of large carnivores, due to their extensive movements and potential conflicts with humans. We studied the population ecology of Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus) for 6 years in two study areas in north-central Florida: Ocala National Forest (ONF), a contiguous forested habitat, and an adjacent residential community of Lynne, a fragmented habitat with substantial human activities. We estimated age-specific survival and fecundity rates of bears using data from radio-collared bears, and parameterized and analyzed stage-structured matrix population models for the two study sites and also for data pooled from both sites. Annual survival rates of adult females were lower in Lynne (0.776 ± 0.074) than in ONF (0.966 ± 0.023). While cub survival rates were higher in Lynne (0.507 ± 0.135) than in ONF (0.282 ± 0.109), the rates at both sites were substantially lower than those reported for other black bear populations. Age-specific fecundities did not vary between sites. The asymptotic population growth rate for ONF was greater than one, whereas that for Lynne was less than one. Our results suggest that anthropogenic influences (primarily road density and vehicular traffic, through their effect on adult survival) can substantially affect the population dynamics of Florida black bears and other large carnivores with large home ranges. We recommend efforts such as constructing highway underpasses, which could reduce road-related mortalities, to ensure long-term persistence of Florida black bears facing threats from rapidly increasing human influences.     

Home range size and daytime habitat selection of leopards in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are endangered in South East Asia yet little is known about which resources need to be secured for their long-term conservation or what numbers of this species this region can support. This study uses radio telemetry to investigate seasonal variation in habitat selection and home range size of Leopards in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. Over a five year period, 3690 locations were recorded from nine individuals. The mean ± standard error of fixed kernel home range size for six adult females was 26 ± 8.2 km², for two adult males was 45.7 ± 14.8 and for two sub-adult females was 29 km² ± 5.5. Adult female wet and dry season home range sizes did not differ significantly. One adult male showed an increase in home range size from dry to wet seasons. Estimated density was 7 adult females/100 km², which suggests 195 adult female leopards living in Huai Kha Khaeng alone, thus highlighting the larger Western Forest Complex’s potential contribution to leopard conservation. Compositional analysis of second and third order habitat selection suggested mixed deciduous and dry evergreen forest types, flat slope and areas close to stream channels are important landscape features for leopards. These results can help formulate a much needed conservation strategy for leopards in the region.     

Ploughing frequency and compost application effects on soil infiltrability in a cotton–maize (Gossypium hirsutum–Zea mays L.) rotation system on a Ferric Luvisol and a Ferric Lixisol in Burkina Faso

One of the key issues to increase soil productivity in the Sahel is to ensure water infiltration and storage in the soil. We hypothesised that reducing tillage from annual to biennial ploughing and the use of organic matter, like compost, would better sustain soil hydraulic properties. The study had the objective to propose sustainable soil fertility management techniques in the cotton–maize cropping systems. The effects of reduced tillage (RT) and annual ploughing (AP) combined with compost application (Co) on soil infiltration parameters were assessed on two soil types. Topsoil mean saturated hydraulic conductivities (K_s) were between 9 and 48 mm h⁻¹ in the Luvisol, while in the Lixisol they were between 18 and 275 mm h⁻¹. In the two soil types compost additions with reduced tillage or with annual ploughing had the largest effect on K_s. Soil hydraulic behaviour was in reasonable agreement with soil pore size distribution (mean values varied from 19.5 to 237 μm) modified by tillage frequency and organo-mineral fertilization. Already the first 3 years of this study showed that use of organic matter, improved soil infiltration characteristics when annual ploughing was used. Also biennial ploughing showed promising results and may be a useful strategy for smallholders to manage these soils.     

Carbon sequestration and relationship between carbon addition and storage under rainfed soybean–wheat rotation in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas

Soil organic matter (SOM) contributes to the productivity and physical properties of soils. Although crop productivity is sustained mainly through the application of organic manure in the Indian Himalayas, no information is available on the effects of long-term manure addition along with mineral fertilizers on C sequestration and the contribution of total C input towards soil organic C (SOC) storage. We analyzed results of a long-term experiment, initiated in 1973 on a sandy loam soil under rainfed conditions to determine the influence of different combinations of NPK fertilizer and fertilizer + farmyard manure (FYM) at 10 Mg ha⁻¹ on SOC content and its changes in the 0–45 cm soil depth. Concentration of SOC increased 40 and 70% in the NPK + FYM-treated plots as compared to NPK (43.1 Mg C ha⁻¹) and unfertilized control plots (35.5 Mg C ha⁻¹), respectively. Average annual contribution of C input from soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) was 29% and that from wheat (Triticum aestivum L. Emend. Flori and Paol) was 24% of the harvestable above-ground biomass yield. Annual gross C input and annual rate of total SOC enrichment were 4852 and 900 kg C ha⁻¹, respectively, for the plots under NPK + FYM. It was estimated that 19% of the gross C input contributed towards the increase in SOC content. C loss from native SOM during 30 years averaged 61 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The estimated quantity of biomass C required to maintain equilibrium SOM content was 321 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The total annual C input by the soybean–wheat rotation in the plots under unfertilized control was 890 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Thus, increase in SOC concentration under long-term (30 years) rainfed soybean–wheat cropping was due to the fact that annual C input by the system was higher than the required amount to maintaining equilibrium SOM content.     

Identifying the effectiveness and constraints of conservation interventions: A case study of the endangered lesser kestrel

The recognition of the rapid and ongoing biodiversity loss has been leading to increasing conservation efforts. To maximise conservation success it is important to evaluate when interventions are likely to be effective. In Portugal, previous research identified that lack of suitable nest-sites was limiting the populations of the endangered lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni). Consequently, a massive provisioning of artificial nest-sites and the implementation of a medium term monitoring scheme was established. Our study showed that artificial nest-site provisioning is an effective measure in mitigating the lack of traditional sites. The lesser kestrel population increased from 155–158 pairs in 1996 to 527–552 in 2007, with 52% breeding in artificial nests. We investigate the factors affecting colony growth and found that colony growth was positively affected by the provisioning of artificial nests but negatively affected by predation rate and human disturbance. Between 2003 and 2007, mean colony growth was estimated at 6.46 ± 1.86 pairs for colonies where artificial nests were provided and −0.69 ± 0.5 pairs in colonies without nest-site provisioning. Moreover, predation rate was significantly lower in artificial nests than in natural ones and, although the number of competitor pairs in lesser kestrel colonies increased, the proportion of nests occupied by competitor species decreased. High risk of collapse and restoration of rural abandoned farmhouses may jeopardize the future of the lesser kestrel in Portugal. Nest-site provisioning and the establishment of a protection status for buildings holding colonies are likely the most effective means to guarantee the long-term survival of this species in the area.     

Soil carbon dioxide flux, carbon sequestration and crop productivity in a tropical dryland agroecosystem: Influence of organic inputs of varying resource quality

In view of the significance of agricultural soils in affecting global C balance, the impact of manipulation of the quality of exogenous inputs on soil CO₂–C flux was studied in rice–barley annual rotation tropical dryland agroecosystem. Chemical fertilizer, Sesbania shoot (high quality resources), wheat straw (low quality resource) and Sesbania + wheat straw (high + low quality), all carrying equivalent recommended dose of N, were added to soil. A distinct seasonal variation in CO₂–C flux was recorded in all treatments, flux being higher during rice period, and much reduced during barley and summer fallow periods. During rice period the mean CO₂–C flux was greater in wheat straw (161% increase over control) and Sesbania + wheat straw (+129%) treatments; however, during barley and summer fallow periods differences among treatments were small. CO₂–C flux was more influenced by seasonal variations in water-filled pore space compared to soil temperature. In contrast, the role of microbial biomass and live crop roots in regulating soil CO₂–C flux was highly limited. Wheat straw input showed smaller microbial biomass with a tendency of rapid turnover rate resulting in highest cumulative CO₂–C flux. The Sesbania input exhibited larger microbial biomass with slower turnover rate, leading to lower cumulative CO₂–C flux. Addition of Sesbania to wheat straw showed higher cumulative CO₂–C flux yet supported highest microbial biomass with lowest turnover rate indicating stabilization of microbial biomass. Although single application of wheat straw or Sesbania showed comparable net change in soil C (18% and 15% relative to control, respectively) and crop productivity (32% and 38%), yet they differed significantly in soil C balance (374 and −3 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ respectively), a response influenced by the recalcitrant and labile nature of the inputs. Combining the two inputs resulted in significant increment in net change in soil C (33% over control) and crop yield (49%) in addition to high C balance (152 g C m⁻² y⁻¹). It is suggested that appropriate mixing of high and low quality inputs may contribute to improved crop productivity and soil fertility in terms of soil C sequestration.     

Dogs on the catwalk: Modelling re-introduction and translocation of endangered wild dogs in South Africa

In South Africa, a plan was launched to manage separate sub-populations of endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in several small, geographically isolated conservation areas as a single meta-population. This intensive management approach involves the re-introduction of wild dogs into suitable conservation areas and periodic translocations among them. Despite the initial failures and high costs associated with wild dog re-introductions and translocations, there is no predictive framework available to quantify which management protocol is the most efficient. We therefore developed an individual-based model of wild dog population and pack dynamics, which accounts for the wild dogs’ social complexity. The model appeared to capture the essential characteristics of a real wild dog population from Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, South Africa and to be relatively robust to parameter uncertainty, suggesting that the model is valid enough for addressing management problems. The model enabled us to quantify a critical initial number of packs (two) and individuals per pack (six) necessary for a re-introduced wild dog population to establish itself in the release area. We also found a practically feasible intervention regime at which a re-introduced wild dog population had the best chance of persistence: intermittently adding packs (at least every 6 years) and harvesting disperser groups (as often as every 4 years) for translocation to other release sites, without threatening the small source population. This study demonstrates that individual-based models can be a powerful decision-support tool in re-introduction planning and provides insight into how populations made up of social groups have dynamics, and ultimately persistence, determined by individual behaviour.     

Camera-trapping forest-woodland wildlife of western Uganda reveals how gregariousness biases estimates of relative abundance and distribution

Camera traps are increasingly used to estimate relative abundance and distribution of wildlife. These methods are powerful and efficient ways to inventory multiple species simultaneously and count rare, secretive individuals across landscapes. However the estimation methods demand assumptions about relative capture probability that may not hold well for gregarious animals. We present results from the first systematic, camera-trap study in forest-woodland, western Uganda. Within a landscape of seven protected areas with globally important biodiversity, we detected >36 species of large mammals and birds in 8841 camera-trap days. Species photographed in groups of two or more individuals produced higher estimates of relative abundance and wider distribution than species photographed as single individuals. We propose these findings reflect higher detectability for animals that forage or travel in groups. We discuss how capture-recapture theory should be adapted to account for both non-independence among individuals in groups and for the interaction between individual and temporal variation in capture probability. We also identify several species that deserve greater conservation attention in Uganda and beyond. Among them, leopards were unexpectedly rare, especially when compared to the sympatric African golden cat. We recommend against a recent policy on leopard trophy hunting, at least in western Uganda.     

Human-wildlife conflict in the Kingdom of Bhutan: Patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian carnivores

We examined predation activity throughout Bhutan by tiger (Panthera tigris), common leopard (Panthera pardus), snow leopard (Uncia uncia) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) on a variety of livestock types using data gathered over the first two years (2003-2005) of a compensation scheme for livestock losses. One thousand three hundred and seventy five kills were documented, with leopards killing significantly more livestock (70% of all kills), than tigers (19%), bears (8%) and snow leopards (2%). About 50% of livestock killing were of cattle, and about 33% were of horses, with tigers, leopards and snow leopards killing a significantly greater proportion of horses than predicted from availability. Examination of cattle kills showed that leopards killed a significantly greater proportion of smaller prey (e.g., calves), whereas tigers killed a significantly greater proportion of larger prey (e.g., bulls). Overall, livestock predation was greatest in summer and autumn which corresponded with a peak in cropping agriculture; livestock are turned out to pasture and forest during the cropping season, and subsequently, are less well guarded than at other times. Across Bhutan, high horse density and low cattle and yak density were associated with high rates of livestock attack, but no relationship was found with forest cover or human population density. Several northern districts were identified as ‘predation hotspots’, where proportions of livestock lost to predation were considerable, and the ratio of reported kills to relative abundance of livestock was high. Implications of our findings for mitigating livestock losses and for conserving large carnivores in Bhutan are discussed.     

Movements and activities of snow leopards in Southwestern Mongolia

Four adult (2M:2F) snow leopards (Uncia uncia) were radio-monitored (VHF; one also via satellite) year-round during 1994-1997 in the Altai Mountains of southwestern Mongolia where prey densities (i.e., ibex, Capra siberica) were relatively low (∼0.9/km²). Marked animals were more active at night (51%) than during the day (35%). Within the study area, marked leopards showed strong affinity for steep and rugged terrain, high use of areas rich in ungulate prey, and affinity for habitat edges. The satellite-monitored leopard moved more than 12 km on 14% of consecutive days monitored. Home ranges determined by standard telemetry techniques overlapped substantially and were at least 13-141 km²in size. However, the satellite-monitored individual apparently ranged over an area of at least 1590 km², and perhaps over as much as 4500 km². Since telemetry attempts from the ground were frequently unsuccessful , we suspect all marked animals likely had large home ranges. Relatively low prey abundance in the area also suggested that home ranges of >500 km²were not unreasonable to expect, though these are >10-fold larger than measured in any other part of snow leopard range. Home ranges of snow leopards may be larger than we suspect in many areas, and thus estimation of snow leopard conservation status must rigorously consider logistical constraints inherent in telemetry studies, and the relative abundance of prey.     

The distribution of volatile isoprenoids in the soil horizons around Pinus halepensis trees

We measured the terpene concentration in pentane and water extracts from soil horizons (litter, organic, top and low mineral) and from roots growing in top and low mineral horizons on a distance gradient from Pinus halepensis L. trees growing alone on a grassland. Terpene concentrations in pentane were higher than in water extracts, although β-caryophyllene showed relatively high solubility in water. The litter and roots were important sources of terpenes in soil. Alpha-pinene dominated in roots growing in both “top” (A1) and “low” (B) mineral horizons (123 ± 36 μg g⁻¹ or 14 ± 5 mg m⁻²) and roots in low mineral horizon (270 ± 91 μg g⁻¹ or 7 ± 2 mg m⁻²). Beta-caryophyllene dominated in litter (1469 ± 331 μg g⁻¹ or 2004 ± 481 mg m⁻²). Terpene concentration in soil decreased with increasing distance to the trunk. This is likely to be related to changes in litter and roots type on the distance gradient from pine to grass and herbs. The relative contributions of all compounds, except α-pinene, were similar in the mineral soils and litter. This suggests that litter of P. halepensis is probably the main source of major terpene compounds. However, long-term emissions of α-pinene from P. halepensis roots might also contribute to α-pinene concentrations in rhizosphere soils.     

Eight years of carbon dioxide exchange above a mixed forest at Borden, Ontario

This paper summarizes results from 8 years (1996–2003) of eddy covariance-based ecosystem CO₂ exchange measurements at the Borden Forest Research Station (44°19′N, 79°56′W). The site represents a mid-latitude, 100-year-old, mixed deciduous and coniferous forest dominated by red maple, aspen and white pine. The years 1996 and 1997 were relatively cold, had a late spring and received below average photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). This contrasts with an early spring, warmer soil and air temperatures during 1998–1999, and with distinctly wet year of 2000 and dry years of 2001–2003. The combination of early spring, warmer air and soil temperature and relatively high level of PPFD was associated with higher net ecosystem productivity (NEP) that peaked during 1999. Photosynthetic capacity was reduced and NEP showed a mid-growing season depression during the dry years of 2001–2003. Annual average ecosystem respiration (R) determined from a light response model was 30% less than R derived from a logistic respiration equation, relating night time CO₂ flux and soil temperature. However these independently determined R values were well correlated indicating that the site is unaffected by fetch and spatial heterogeneity problems. Based on the combined 8 years of growing season daytime data, an air temperature of 20–25 °C and a vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of 1.3 kPa were found to be the optimal conditions for CO₂ uptake by the canopy. Over the 1996–2003 period, the forest sequestered carbon at an average rate of 140 ± 111 gC m⁻² y⁻¹. The corresponding gross ecosystem photosynthesis (GEP) and R over this period were 1116 ± 93 gC m⁻² y⁻¹ and 976 ± 68 gC m⁻² y⁻¹, respectively. The annual carbon sequestration ranged from 19 gC m⁻² in 1996 to 281 gC m⁻² in 1999. However, these estimates were sensitive to frictional velocity threshold () used for screening data associated with poor turbulent mixing at night. Increasing from 0.2 m s⁻¹ (based on the inflection point in the nighttime CO₂ flux vs. u_* relationship) to 0.35 m s⁻¹ (determined using a selection algorithm based on change-point detection) modified the 8-year mean NEP estimate from 140 ± 111 gC m⁻² y⁻¹ to 65 ± 120 gC m⁻² y⁻¹. Both approaches show that the Borden forest was a low to moderate sink of carbon over the 8-year period.     

Contribution of fine roots to ecosystem biomass and net primary production in black spruce, aspen, and jack pine forests in Saskatchewan

Fine root (<2 mm) processes contribute to and exhibit control over a large pool of labile carbon (C) in boreal forest ecosystems because of the high proportion of C allocated to fine root net primary production (NPP), and the rapid decomposition of fine roots relative to aboveground counterparts. The objective of this study was to determine the contribution of fine roots to ecosystem biomass and NPP in a mature black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.) (OBS), aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) (OA), and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) (OJP) stand, and an 11-year-old harvested jack pine (HJP) stand in Saskatchewan. Estimates of fine root biomass and NPP were obtained from nine minirhizotron (MR) tubes at each of the four Boreal Ecosystem Research and Monitoring Sites (BERMS). Fine root data were collected once a month for May–September in 2003 and 2004. Additional C biomass and NPP data for various components of the forest stands were obtained from Gower et al. (1997) and Howard et al. (2004). Annual fine root biomass averaged 3.10 ± 0.89, 1.71 ± 0.49, 1.62 ± 0.32, and 2.96 ± 0.67 Mg C ha⁻¹ (means ± S.D.) at OBS, OA, OJP, and HJP, respectively, comprising between 1 and 6% of total stand biomass. Annual fine root NPP averaged 2.66 ± 0.97, 2.03 ± 0.43, 1.44 ± 0.43, and 2.16 ± 0.81 Mg C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (means ± S.D.) at OBS, OA, OJP, and HJP, respectively, constituting between 41 and 71% of total stand NPP. Results of this study indicate that fine roots produce a large amount of C in boreal forests. It is speculated that fine root NPP may control a large amount of labile C-cycling in boreal forests and that fine root responses to environmental and anthropogenic stress may be an early indicator of impaired ecosystem functioning.     

Effect of deep ploughing on the water status of highly and less compacted soils for coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) production in Sri Lanka

Soil compaction limits soil water availability which adversely affects coconut production in Sri Lanka. Field experiments were conducted in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantations with highly and less compacted soils in the intermediate climatic zone of Sri Lanka. Soil physical properties of sixteen major soil series planted with coconut were evaluated to select the most suitable soil series to investigate the effect of deep ploughing on soil water conservation. Soil compaction and soil water retention with respect to deep ploughing were monitored during the dry and rainy seasons using cone penetrometer and neutron scattering techniques, respectively. Evaluation of soil physical properties showed that the range of mean values of bulk density (BD) and soil penetration resistance (SPR) in the surface soil (0–10 cm depth) of major soil series in coconut lands was from 1.38 ± 0.02 to 1.57 ± 0.07 g/cm³ and 55 ± 10 to 315 ± 16.4 N/cm² respectively. The total available water fraction increased with clay content of soil as a result of high micropores. However, due to soil compaction, ability of soils to conserve water and to remain aerated was low for those series. Deep ploughing during the rainy and dry periods in highly compacted soils (BD > 1.5 g/cm³ and SPR > 250 N/cm²) greatly increased conserved soil water in the profile, while in less compacted soils (BD < 1.5 g/cm³ and SPR < 250 N/cm²) conserved water content was adversely affected. Soil water retention in bare soils of both highly and less compacted soil series was higher than that of live grass-covered soil. Amount of water conserved in ploughed Andigama series with respect to bare soils and grass-covered treatments during the severe dry period was 10.4 and 16.9 cm/m, while water storage reduction in the same treatments with ploughed Madampe series was 6.55 and 5.45 cm/m respectively. In addition, deep ploughing even in the effective root zone with live grass-covered highly compacted soils around coconut tree was favorable for soil water retention compared to that of live grass-covered less compacted soils.     

Determinants of annual fluxes of CO2 and N2O in long-term no-tillage and conventional tillage systems in northern France

The greenhouse gases CO₂ and N₂O emissions were quantified in a long-term experiment in northern France, in which no-till (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) had been differentiated during 32 years in plots under a maize–wheat rotation. Continuous CO₂ and periodical N₂O soil emission measurements were performed during two periods: under maize cultivation (April 2003–July 2003) and during the fallow period after wheat harvest (August 2003–March 2004). In order to document the dynamics and importance of these emissions, soil organic C and mineral N, residue decomposition, soil potential for CO₂ emission and climatic data were measured. CO₂ emissions were significantly larger in NT on 53% and in CT on 6% of the days. From April to July 2003 and from November 2003 to March 2004, the cumulated CO₂ emissions did not differ significantly between CT and NT. However, the cumulated CO₂ emissions from August to November 2003 were considerably larger for NT than for CT. Over the entire 331 days of measurement, CT and NT emitted 3160 ± 269 and 4064 ± 138 kg CO₂-C ha⁻¹, respectively. The differences in CO₂ emissions in the two tillage systems resulted from the soil climatic conditions and the amounts and location of crop residues and SOM. A large proportion of the CO₂ emissions in NT over the entire measurement period was probably due to the decomposition of old weathered residues. NT tended to emit more N₂O than CT over the entire measurement period. However differences were statistically significant in only half of the cases due to important variability. N₂O emissions were generally less than 5 g N ha⁻¹ day⁻¹, except for a few dates where emission increased up to 21 g N ha⁻¹ day⁻¹. These N₂O fluxes represented 0.80 ± 0.15 and 1.32 ± 0.52 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for CT and NT, respectively. Depending on the periods, a large part of the N₂O emissions occurred was probably induced by nitrification, since soil conditions were not favorable for denitrification. Finally, for the period of measurement after 32 years of tillage treatments, the NT system emitted more greenhouses gases (CO₂ and N₂O) to the atmosphere on an annual basis than the CT system.     

Transpiration and early growth of tree plantations established on degraded cropland over shallow saline groundwater table in northwest Uzbekistan

This study examined the early growth and water use of tree plantations established on a marginalized irrigated cropland in northwest Uzbekistan, where salinization of agricultural soils is widespread due to shallow saline groundwater tables. During the first two growing seasons in 2003–2004, the tree stands consisting of Elaeagnus angustifolia L., Populus euphratica Oliv., and Ulmus pumila L. were irrigated with 80 mm year⁻¹, and, in 2005, were left to rely on the shallow (0.9–2.0 m deep) groundwater with a salinity of 1–5 dS m⁻¹. Soil salinity increased but remained within the range of moderate-to-strong (4–14 dS m⁻¹) during the three years. In the course of the growing season, plantations transpired 0.1–7 mm day⁻¹ in 2003 and 1–13 mm day⁻¹ in 2004–2005, as determined with the Penman–Monteith model. In the absence of irrigation, the annual stand transpiration averaged 1250, 1030, and 670 mm for E. angustifolia, P. euphratica and U. pumila, respectively. In 2005, the leaf area index of E. angustifolia ranged from 5 to 10, surpassing that of the other two species more than two-fold. Differences in canopy conductance and transpiration were significant among the tree species and the decoupling coefficient at no time exceeded 0.3, indicating strong physiological control of transpiration. The vigorous juvenile growth and high transpiration under deficit irrigation and after irrigation was terminated, suggested that afforestation with well-adapted tree species is a viable land use option for degraded cropland. The plantation responses to increasing soil salinity must be monitored to determine potential leaching demands in the long run.