Agricultural diversification among smallholder rattan cultivators in Central Kalimantan,Indonesia

Many developing countries are trying to promote agricultural diversification among smallholders because they feel that smallholders are too dependent upon a narrow range of crops. Fieldwork among smallholder rattan cultivators in Southern Borneo, Indonesia, suggests that smallholders do maintain a poorly diversified portfolio of agricultural activities. Farmers rely heavily upon rattan because of its superior profitability. A number of economic and agronimic constraints however prevent farmers from diversifying out of rattan into other crops.     

Contesting national and international forest regimes: Case of timber legality certification for community forests in Central Java,Indonesia

The Government of Indonesia (GoI) and the European Union (EU) have signed a Voluntary Partnership Agreement on Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT-VPA), which aims to prevent illegal timber products from entering the EU. This agreement recognizes a certification for timber products exported from Indonesia based on FLEGT-VPA standards and implemented through the timber legality verification system, Sistem Verifikasi Legalitas Kayu (SVLK). While the implementation of SVLK complies with the FLEGT-VPA, it has not dissolved pre-existing national systems for forest management and timber trade. Implementing SVLK standards amid multiple forest regimes causes redundancy of administrative procedures in forest management and timber trade in Indonesia. This redundancy, in turn, leads to decrease in cost efficiency, weak legitimation, and low effectiveness of the system, especially in community forests.     

Wood and non-wood forest products of Central Java,Indonesia

We investigated herb and woody species at rehabilitated forests planted by mahogany and teak, and original, not rehabilitated forests in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Plant species were classified into five use categories: medicine, food, fodder, ornament, and construction. We registered 142 species belonging to 54 families known as useful species with at least one, often more, use categories. The number of useful species was highest for medicine use (107 species). There was a dominance of exotic herb species used for food and annual herbs used for fodder. The number of useful herbs and exotic woody species was highest in teak stands. The number of woody species used for medicine, food, and construction was higher than those for ornament and fodder. All herb species decreased with time, except annual native, that increased. Around 50% of the useful species occurred only once in one site, and some species showed a distribution restricted to one type of stands. Overall, our results seem to show that rehabilitated stands are doing well with regard to useful herb and woody species. We suggest strategies for plant and ecosystem conservation, especially for rare native plant species and species with restricted distribution.     

Growth and yield of maize and timber trees in smallholder agroforestry systems in Claveria,northern Mindanao,Philippines

On-farm experiments were conducted in the Philippines to study over a 4-year period the growth of two timber trees, gmelina (Gmelina arborea R. Br.) and bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume), and their impact on the grain yield of intercropped maize. The experiment consisted of maize monocropping plots (control) and maize intercropped between trees planted in block (2 × 2.5 m), and hedgerow arrangement (1 × 10 m). Three maize crops were planted in the block plots before canopy closure, and seven maize crops were planted in the hedgerow and monocropping plots. Maize grain yield in the hedgerow and in the block arrangement with gmelina were respectively 37% (16.58 tons ha⁻¹) and 68% (8.3 tons ha⁻¹) lower than in monocropping (26.21 tons ha⁻¹). In the plots with bagras, maize grain yield in hedgerow and in block arrangement were respectively 19% (24.8 tons ha⁻¹) and 66% (10.4 tons ha⁻¹) lower than in monocropping (30.6 tons ha⁻¹). For both tree species, the diameter at breast height (dbh) was greater in hedgerow than in block arrangement, with the difference being more pronounced with age. It was estimated that gmelina planted in hedgerows would produce 6–8 m³ ha⁻¹ of merchantable volume more than if planted in block. The study verifies the hypothesis that intercropping between widely-spaced trees rows (planted at 10 m or more) is more profitable and feasible to smallholders than either maize monocropping or woodlots, and concludes with recommendations on how to further improve the productivity of tree-intercropping systems.     

Household and farm attributes affecting adoption of smallholder timber management practices by tree growers in Gunungkidul region,Indonesia

Farm household characteristics determine the success of programs promoting agroforestry systems and practices. This paper reports household and farm factors affecting the adoption of timber management practices by smallholders in the Gunungkidul region, Central Java, Indonesia. The research used three logistic regression analysis models—based on each household and farm characteristic, and a composite of both together—to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ adoption and management decisions, and their relative importance. A sample of 152 farmers who managed their trees primarily for timber production was compared to a sample of 115 farmers with similar socio-economic characteristics who did not. The household condition and composite models identified both on-farm and off-farm gross incomes as significant factors affecting farmers’ decisions to manage timber trees. The models confirmed that farmers with larger farms, and with higher on- and off-farm incomes, were more likely to manage their trees for timber production. These results have implications for extension programs that promote adoption of commercial timber management by smallholders in the case study and similar regions.     

Biomass of a man-made forest of timber tree species in the humid tropics of West Java, Indonesia

Biomass of a mature man-made forest in West Java, Indonesia, was estimated to evaluate the carbon sequestration potential of plantation forest in the humid tropics. Twenty plots, each 0.25 ha in area and containing one to six planted species over 40 years of age and with closed canopies, were selected. Trunk dry mass was estimated from trunk diameter, tree height, and bulk density. Maximum trunk diameter (122 cm) was observed in a 46-year-old Khaya grandifoliola C. DC. tree, and the tallest tree (51 m) was a 46-year-old Shorea selanica (DC.) Blume. The largest trunk biomass (911 Mg ha⁻¹) was achieved in the plot composed of two Khaya spp. Among the plots composed of indigeneous Dipterocarpaceae species, the largest trunk biomass was 635 Mg ha⁻¹. These trunk biomasses were larger than those reported from primary rainforests in Southeast Asia (e.g., 403 Mg ha⁻¹ in East Kalimantan, 522 and 368 Mg ha⁻¹ in Peninsular Malaysia). The large biomass in this forest suggests that, given favorable conditions, man-made forests can accumulate the quantities of atmospheric carbon that were lost by the logging of primary forests in the humid tropics.     

Understanding the timber value chain in community-based forestry in Indonesia: Analysis of sengon in central Java

The commercial opportunities for sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria L. Nielsen) are expanding rapidly in Indonesia, but there remains a lack of supply for the processing industry of the desired volume and quality of timber for processing from this fast-grown tree. This article discusses recent analysis of the value chain of sengon in Indonesia to determine (i) who the stakeholders were and how each added value, and (ii) how the benefits were distributed among stakeholders. Information was collected from a mix of farmers (as tree growers) and other actors involved in the value chain. The research revealed two broad types of value chains for sengon–‘direct’ and ‘traditional’, with the potential increased income for farmers being as high as 35% when they use the direct approach, compared to the traditional approach. As expected, the further ‘downstream’ the position of the stakeholder in the value chain, the greater the monetary value added to the sengon timber and subsequent products. If farmers were to acquire a greater understanding of the market dynamics for sengon, they could better target the sale of their forest products to specific market segments and make forestry a more profitable enterprise. While village traders in the traditional value chain play an important role connecting small-scale tree growers to commercial markets, the sustained viability of their role is uncertain if more farmers adopt the ‘direct’ approach.     

Revenue loss from legal timber in Indonesia

The link between forest revenue administration and under performance of revenues from legal timber has received little attention in the literature. This article analyzes revenues from the timber royalty and reforestation fund fee, two important forest non-tax revenues in Indonesia whose tropical forest has been under threat of extensive deforestation particularly from commercial timber logging. It shows that revenue realization does not reflect potential with two key findings: first, timber royalty revenues represent only 52% of their potential, and second, revenues from reforestation fund fee suggest a counter-intuitive pattern – revenue realization is 34% above its potential. We provide plausible explanations from the perspective related to features of revenue collection. We further consider policy relevance in terms of forest revenue administration.     

Community Dependency on Forest Resources in West Java,Indonesia

Abstract

Policies aimed at the exclusion of local communities from forest management are inappropriate, especially in a densely populated area with a low level of land ownership. Here we demonstrate that termination of the Tumpang Sari program, which allowed local communities access to areas for controlled cultivation in several parts of the state forest area in West Java, Indonesia, did not cease illegal cultivation of the forestland. Moreover, illegal cultivation continues to be conducted by many people. This has created not only a land degradation problem but also has affected other forest resource users, the fuelwood collectors and the dairy cattle farmers. Therefore, the re-involvement of local communities in better forest management is required to avoid further environmental degradation as well as enhance poverty alleviation programs.     

Community participation in a social forestry program in Central Java,Indonesia: the effect of incentive structure and social capital

A new social forestry program has been implemented in Java to overcome encroachment of state forests. In this program, the state and local communities jointly manage the state forests and share the benefits of increased forest resource stock and flow as a result of the management. This article aims to investigate the complete incentive structure of the social forestry program and how the incentive structure changes community member participation in forest management. Property rights transfers and economic analyses were employed to analyze the incentive structure. We conclude that although incomplete, the transfer of rights from the state to the community members is a useful approach toward establishing an effective incentive structure and provides a net gain to the community members. The extent of community participation, however, depends not only on the incentive structure but also on the social capital that exists in the community.     

Complex regulatory frameworks governing private smallholder tree plantations in Gunungkidul District,Indonesia

Smallholder tree plantation, now on the increase in Indonesia, has long been practiced by rural farmers as a strategy to optimize the expected utility of land, labor and other constraints. Increasing demand for timber has driven a shift toward commercialization of smallholder forestry. However, smallholders face huge challenges when they seek for commercial markets in the form of complex regulatory frameworks applied to smallholder plantations. This paper discusses the case of smallholder plantations in Gunungkidul District (Indonesia), considered one of the most commercialized timber marketing hubs for local, national and international markets. It analyzes how opportunities and challenges, resulted from different regulatory frameworks, affect the competitiveness of smallholder forestry practices. In this paper, regulatory frameworks are defined as not only regulations issued by public administrators at the domestic (local and national) level, but also cover the emerging market-based regulatory frameworks, i.e. voluntary certification of sustainable forestry and mandatory timber legality verification.     

Productivity of kayu putih (Melaleuca leucadendron LINN) tree plantation managed in non-timber forest production systems in Java,Indonesia

Kayu putih oil, extracted from the kayu putih tree (Melaleuca leucadendron), is an important non-timber forest product (NTFP) in Indonesia. We compared productivity of kayu putih tree plantations among three different sites in East, Central, and West Java, Indonesia. Leaf-twig, and branch production per tree differed significantly among the three sites. Tree biomass production was highest at the site in West Java practicing tumpangsari (a form of shifting cultivation) of kayu putih with rice (Oryza sativa) on alluvial soils. Tree biomass production was lowest at the site in East Java, practicing tumpangsari of kayu putih with maize (Zea mays) and cassava (Mani- hot esculenta). At this site, tree biomass production increased with increasing stand age and low production was compensated by greater biomass yield of companion crops. Intermediate tree biomass production was observed at the site in Central Java where intercropping is only practiced for the first two years after plantation establishment. Production of tree biomass and kayu putih oil did not increase with increasing stand density, indicating that at a given site, high tree stocking did not lead to high production. Stand-level productivity of the plantations increased with increasing stand age and maximum productivity was attained at 15 to 35 years, after which productivity declined. This suggested unsustainable stand productivity as plantations increase in age.     

A nutrient balance sheet for Agathis dammara warb. plantation forest under various management conditions in Central Java,Indonesia

A nutrient balance sheet is presented for Agathis dammara Warb. plantation forest growing on andesitic volcanic soils of intermediate fertility in south central Java, Indonesia, in rotations of 40 years. Inputs of nutrients from atmospheric and geological sources are compared with losses through various harvesting regimes, agricultural intercropping during the first two years after planting and deep seepage. It is concluded from the data presented, that whole-tree harvesting should not be practised, to avoid future shortages of nutrients, especially of phosphorus. The adjustment of management practices to prevailing socio-economic conditions, by using a controlled taungya system at planting time as well as allowing some harvesting of felling debris (branches) for fuel-wood, is acceptable from a nutrient point of view. However, care needs to be taken to minimize losses due to erosion during the intercropping phase. Shortening of rotations will increase nutrient losses mainly through increased site disturbance.     

Prospects and problems: considerations for smallholder cattle grazing in oil palm plantations in South Kalimantan,Indonesia

Current Indonesian beef production only meets 45% of local demand. Increasing local beef production through integration of cattle production in pre-existing oil palm plantations is a possible solution to meeting this shortfall. The oil palm understorey provides feed, alleviating the need to convert additional land to agriculture. Smallholders are important contributors to both Indonesian cattle and palm oil production. This case study research seeks to understand key aspects of smallholder cattle management in palm oil production areas, to highlight opportunities and barriers to cattle integration. Thirty-nine smallholder cattle farmers from four villages in South Kalimantan were individually interviewed. The lack of alternative feed sources was the major driver towards the adoption of cattle production using oil palm understorey as feed. Cattle grazing was uncontrolled due to labour shortages and occurred in individually owned and ‘plasma’ plantations, with cattle penned at night where possible to avoid theft. Arrangements on land access and use between stakeholders are needed for systematic cattle grazing and to control cattle theft.

     

Long-term effect of timber harvesting in the Bartica Triangle, Central Guyana

In one of the longest time series available, we present a comparison between forest inventories of 1924, 1964 and 1999 of an 800 km² forest-harvesting area in Central Guyana. Harvesting mainly targeted one species Chlorocardium rodiei (Greenheart), of which the population declined by 63% over the 75 years of harvesting. The decline of the population was not only detectable in the harvested size classes (>30 cm) but also among the smaller size classes. In 1999, however, Greenheart still ranked third in abundance. There was little change in the overall species composition, proportion of disperser groups or proportion of functional groups in the tree community. There were also no detectable changes in tree diversity. The conservation value of these unique forests can still be considered high. Thus, while the long-term sustainability of Greenheart harvesting is low, other ecological criteria of sustainability are met. Short-term recovery of Greenheart is not to be expected due to low population growth and small numbers of seed trees. Strategic choices will have to be made with regard to harvesting the remaining Greenheart stands—three scenarios are discussed.     

Kebon tatangkalan: a disappearing agroforest in the Upper Citarum Watershed,West Java,Indonesia

A comprehensive study was carried out on a typical indigenous agroforestry system, called kebon tatangkalan, in the changing agricultural landscape of the Upper Citarum Watershed, West Java, Indonesia. The main objectives of the study are to elucidate the structural patterns, multidimensional functions, and dynamics of this multi-layered agroforest. The study has identified 12 groups of different plant assemblages indicating that this type of agroforest contributes considerably to the heterogeneity of the agricultural landscape in the study area. Multivariate analysis suggests that elevation and slope are the biophysical factors that correlate most significantly with the distribution of plant species in kebon tatangkalan. The presence of this man-made vegetation is currently declining from the landscape due to population growth and rapid regional economic development. Serious effort to revitalize this traditional agroforest is needed to prevent its disappearance. Introduction of highly productive species and establishment of integrated policies in regional land-use planning and management are measures that should be taken into account in preserving this traditional agroforestry system.     

Tree Culture of Smallholder Farmers Practicing Agroforestry in Gunung Salak Valley,West Java,Indonesia

This paper investigates the types of agroforestry system that exist in Gunung Salak Valley, West Java, Indonesia in order to characterize the differences in their basic structure and associated crop plant diversity. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation and focus groups, followed by household survey of a sample of 20 agroforestry farmers. Five main agroforestry systems (homegardens, fruit tree system, timber tree system, mixed fruit–timber system, and cropping in the forest understory) exist in the study area, and all of them exhibit a noticeable diversity in terms of both species composition and utilization. Products from farming accounted for an average 24 % of household income. They comprised agroforestry products which contributed IDR 3.25 million/year and other agricultural products contributing IDR 1.66 million/year. The observed agroforestry systems include not only a form of forest dominated by ‘cultivated trees’, but also an anthropogenic vegetation formation derived from agricultural antecedents. In land-use classifications agroforestry systems are not recognized as forestry, but like forests they provide tree products and services. Classification will always be disfunctional if a binary system is applied, thus a more sophisticated approach should be adopted that incorporates the economic and environmental characteristics of a wider range of systems.     

Attitudes of local people towards conservation and Gunung Halimun National Park in West Java,Indonesia

This paper examines local residents attitudes towards conservation and Gunung Halimun National Park, in West Java, Indonesia. A questionnaire survey and informal interviews are conducted among 74 households, in three villages, in and around the park. The survey reveals that almost all people knew about the existence and the laws of the park. Many people recognize and understand the importance of the global conservation of the park. In addition, most people agree that local participation is indispensable for conservation. Furthermore, people tend to be eager to use secondary forests or scrubs rather than primary forests or old secondary, recognizing the use of forest ecosystems in a sustainable manner. However, many people would like to claim the right to use the forests and lands within the park. People are only interested in meeting their daily needs from the park at the moment. Fortunately, they hope to participate in the park administration and are also enthusiastic about cooperating with related stakeholders including government authorities and NGOs. The results of the survey can be summarized as follows. Firstly, the local community does not have enough information about the park and, consequently, people only follow the compulsory laws. Secondly, local conservation knowledge and the global objectives of park management cannot be harmonized because of the lack of information and agreement concerning the park between local people and government authorities. People do not have certain incentives to conserve biodiversity, as they cannot get any benefits from the park. Thirdly, in spite of these adverse findings, it largely depends on the government authorities capabilities whether the integrated park management can succeed or not, because people still have positive attitudes towards local participation.     

Household economy and tree growing in upland Central Java

This article tries to identify the key variables that determine landuse patterns and the strategies of households towards tree growing in two upland regions in Central Java. A household's access to land and market opportunities appear to be such key variables. Households with little land use their land more intensively with respect to crop, livestock and tree production. So do households with access to market opportunities. Based on this type of diagnostic research more appropriate tree-based designs could be developed to contribute to the solution of landuse problems in the uplands of Java.