Comparison of sprinkler,trickle and furrow irrigation efficiencies for onion production

In the Mesilla Valley of southern New Mexico, furrow irrigation is the primary source of water for growing onions. As the demand for water increases, there will be increasing competition for this limited resource. Water management will become an essential practice used by farmers. Irrigation efficiency (IE) is an important factor into improving water management but so is economic return. Therefore, our objectives were to determine the irrigation efficiency, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and water use efficiency (WUE), under sprinkler, furrow, and drip irrigated onions for different yield potential levels and to determine the IE associated with the amount of water application for a sprinkler and drip irrigation systems that had the highest economic return.Maximum IE (100%) and economic return were obtained with a sprinkler system at New Mexico State University’s Agriculture Science Center at Farmington, NM. This IE compared with the 54–80% obtained with the sprinkler irrigation used by the farmers. The IEs obtained for onion fields irrigated with subsurface drip irrigation methods ranged from 45 to 77%. The 45% represents the nonstressed treatments, in which an extra amount of irrigation above the evapotranspiration (Et) requirement was applied to keep the base of the onion plates wet. The irrigation water that was not used for Et went to deep drainage water. The return on the investment cost to install a drip system operated at a IE of 45 was 29%. Operating the drip system at a IE of 79% resulted in a yield similar to surface irrigated onions and consequently, it was not economical to install a drip system. The IEs at the furrow-irrigated onion fields ranged from 79 to 82%. However, the IEs at the furrow-irrigated onion fields were high because farmers have limited water resources. Consequently, they used the concept of deficit irrigation to irrigate their onion crops, resulting in lower yields. The maximum IWUE (0.084 t ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ of water applied) was obtained using the sprinkler system, in which water applied to the field was limited to the amount needed to replace the onions’ Et requirements. The maximum IWUE values for onions using the subsurface drip was 0.059 and 0.046 t ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ of water applied for furrow-irrigated onions. The lower IWUE values obtained under subsurface drip and furrow irrigation systems compared with sprinkler irrigation was due to excessive irrigation under subsurface drip and higher evaporation rates from fields using furrow irrigation. The maximum WUE for onions was 0.009 t ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ of Et. In addition, WUE values are reduced by allowing the onions to suffer from water stress.     

Comparison of drip and sprinkler irrigation strategies on sunflower seed and oil yield and quality under Mediterranean climatic conditions

This study compares the effects of different irrigation regimes on seed yield and oil yield quality and water productivity of sprinkler and drip irrigated sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) on silty-clay-loam soils in 2006 and 2007 in the Mediterranean region of Turkey. In sprinkler irrigation a line-source system was used in order to create gradually varying irrigation levels. Irrigation regimes consisted of full irrigation (I₁) and three deficit irrigation treatments (I₂, I₃ and I₄), and rain-fed treatment (I₅). In the drip system, irrigation regimes included full irrigation (FI-100), three deficit irrigation treatments (DI-25, DI-50, DI-75), partial root zone drying (PRD-50) and rain-fed treatment (RF). Irrigations were scheduled at weekly intervals both in sprinkler and drip irrigation, based on soil water depletion within a 0.90 m root zone in FI-100 and I₁ plots. Irrigation treatments influenced significantly (P < 0.01) sunflower seed and oil yields, and oil quality both with sprinkler and drip systems. Seed yields decreased with increasing water stress levels under drip and sprinkler irrigation in both experimental years. Seed yield response to irrigation varied considerably due to differences in soil water contents and spring rainfall distribution in the experimental years. Although PRD-50 received about 36% less irrigation water as compared to FI-100, sunflower yield was reduced by an average of 15%. PRD-50 produced greater seed and oil yields than DI-50 in the drip irrigation system. Yield reduction was mainly due to less number of seeds per head and lower seed mass. Soil water deficits significantly reduced crop evapotranspiration (ET), which mainly depends on irrigation amounts. Significant linear relationships (R² = 0.96) between ET and oil yield (Y) were obtained in each season. The seed yield response factors (ky_seed) were 1.24 and 0.86 for the sprinkler and 1.19 and 1.06 for the drip system in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The oil yield response factor (ky_oil) for sunflower was found to be 1.08 and 1.49 for both growing seasons for the sprinkler and 1.36 and 1.25 for the drip systems, respectively. Oil content decreased with decreasing irrigation amount. Consistently greater values of oil content were obtained from the full irrigation treatment plots. The saturated (palmitic and stearic acid) and unsaturated (oleic and linoleic acid) fatty acid contents were significantly affected by water stress. Water stress caused an increase in oleic acid with a decrease in linoleic acid contents. The palmitic and stearic acid concentrations decreased under drought conditions. Water productivity (WP) values were significantly affected by irrigation amounts and ranged from 0.40 to 0.71 kg m⁻³ in 2006, and from 0.69 to 0.91 kg m⁻³ in 2007. The PRD-50 treatment resulted in the greatest WP (1.0 kg m⁻³) and irrigation water productivity (IWP) (1.4 kg m⁻³) in both growing seasons. The results revealed that under water scarcity situation, PRD-50 in drip and I₂ in sprinkler system provide acceptable irrigation strategies to increase sunflower yield and quality.     

Effects of different irrigation methods on shedding and yield of cotton

In general, cotton is irrigated by surface methods in Turkey although sprinkler and drip irrigation have been suggested as a means of supplying most types of crops with frequent and uniform applications of water, adaptable over a wide range of topographic and soil conditions. Recently, sprinkler irrigation systems have been introduced for cotton as a result of increased pressure to develop new irrigation technology suited to limited water supply as well as to specific topographic and soil conditions. In this study, the effects of three different irrigation methods (furrow, sprinkler and drip) on seed-cotton yield, shedding ratio and certain yield components are presented. The research was carried out in The Southeastern Anatolia Region (GAP) of Turkey from 1991 to 1994. The maximum cotton yields were 4380, 3630 and 3380 kg/ha for drip, furrow and sprinkler irrigation, respectively. Drip irrigation produced 21% more seed-cotton than the furrow method and 30% more than the sprinkler method. Water use efficiencies (WUE) proved to be 4.87, 3.87 and 2.36 kg/ha/mm for drip, furrow and sprinkler, respectively. Shedding ratios ranged from 50.8 to 59.0% (furrow), 52.9 to 64.8% (sprinkler), 50.8 to 56.8% (drip), depending on the amount of water applied. The shedding ratio for sprinkler irrigation was significantly higher than that of either furrow (P=0.10) or drip irrigation (P=0.05), resulting in lower seed-cotton yield for sprinkler irrigation. For all methods, a quadratic relationship was found between the amount of water applied and shedding ratios, with the least shedding occurring between 1000 and 1500 mm of water. Both limited and over-irrigation increased the shedding ratio for all methods. Accordingly, a lower boll number per plant and a lower seed-cotton yield were obtained from sprinkler-irrigated cotton; a significantly decreasing linear relationship between the shedding ratio and the total cotton yield and boll number per plant.     

全国纯井灌区类型构成对灌溉水有效利用系数的影响分析

对2007—2012年全国纯井灌区不同类型有效灌溉面积占纯井灌区有效灌溉面积的比例与纯井灌区灌溉水有效利用系数进行多元回归分析,建立了灌溉水有效利用系数模型。结果表明,5种灌溉类型灌溉面积占比对纯井灌区灌溉水有效利用系数的影响程度为:微灌>喷灌>管道输水地面灌>防渗渠道地面灌>土质渠道地面灌;各省、全国纯井灌区灌溉水有效利用系数模拟值与实测值误差分别在±10%、2%以内。     

Comparison of different irrigation methods based on the parametric evaluation approach in Dosalegh plain: Iran

Declining water resources and limited clean water reservoirs call for more efficient water use for food production in the future. The objective of this research was to compare different irrigation methods based on a parametric evaluation system in an area of 60,000 ha in the Dosalegh plain of the Khuzestan province, in the southwest of Iran. After the soil properties were analyzed and evaluated, suitability maps were generated for surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods, using Remote Sensing (RS) techniques and Geographic Information System (GIS). The results demonstrated that by applying sprinkler and drip irrigation instead of surface irrigation method, the land suitability of 23,790 and 33,261 ha (39.89%) in the Dosalegh plain will improve, respectively. The comparison of the different types of irrigation techniques revealed that the drip and sprinkler irrigations methods were more effective and efficient than that of surface irrigation for improved land productivity. However, the main limiting factor in using either surface or/and sprinkler irrigation methods in this area were soil texture, salinity, and slope, and the main limiting factor in using drip irrigation methods were the calcium carbonate content, soil texture and salinity.     

A comparison between the gross energy requirements of different irrigation systems in Israel

Summary The energy requirements for manufacturing irrigation equipment were evaluated from a survey of a number of factories and workshops in Israel.Based on the results obtained and the life span of the components, the annual amortization of energy by high-pressure (overhead sprinklers), medium-pressure (undertree sprinklers and sprayers) and low-pressure (drip lines) irrigation systems was calculated for citrus orchards and cotton crops as irrigated in Israel. For citrus orchards a low-pressure sprayer system amortized 1.5 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 more energy than a medium-pressure undertree sprinkler system, and 2.7 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 more than a high-pressure, overhead sprinkler system. For irrigating a cotton crop, the low-pressure drip system used 6.8 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 more embodied energy than the movable, high-pressure overhead sprinkler system.The annual energy invested in irrigation water conveyance through the National Water Carrier, at the current hydraulic pressure of 500 kPa at the farm gate, varies for a cotton crop from 20 to 45 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the northern region and from 70 to 215 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the southern region of Israel, when irrigated with 4,050 m³ ha^–1. For a citrus orchard this energy input varies from 60 to 75 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the central region and from 120 to 375 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the southern regions, when irrigated with 7,200 m³ ha^–1. For obtaining the same yield in the south as in the north, the energy input for water conveyance has to be increased by 12% in the case of a cotton crop and by 7% in the case of a citrus orchard. Thus, in the north the annual energy amortization of a dripline irrigation system amounts to one third of that expended on water conveyance but in the south amounts to one-eighteenth or less, indicating the large regional dependency of energy inputs for irrigation.Calculations show that the reduction in energy requirement for water conveyance needed by irrigation systems operating at lower pressures compensates for their higher energy losses in system amortization. For example, in citrus irrigation the substitution of medium-pressure undertree sprinkler systems for high-pressure overhead sprinkler systems was calculated to save 8% of the total energy expenditure for water conveyance to the farm gate. This would amount to a saving of 7 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 for citrus in the central region and of 8 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the south. For cotton the substitution of low pressure dripline systems for high-pressure overhead sprinkler systems could save 16% of the total energy expenditure for pressurized water conveyance. This would amount to a saving of 8 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the northern region increasing to 10 GJ ha^–1 y^–1 in the south, taking into account a higher irrigation water requirement.Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel. No. 1589-E, 1985 series     

不同灌溉方法对冬小麦农田土壤温度的影响

田间试验表明,地面畦灌、喷灌和滴灌改变了土壤温度的剖面分布特征。喷灌和滴灌处理表层温度低于地面灌溉处理,而且剖面温差小。高频率的灌溉使得滴灌处理表层土壤温度低,最高温度分布在土壤20cm深度左右,剖面温度分布呈现"S"型特征。喷灌处理表层温度也较低,除表层外土壤温度的剖面分布可以近似为指数函数的分布特征。地面畦灌处理土壤温度的剖面分布表现出明显的指数函数分布特征。灌溉方法对土壤温度剖面分布特征的研究有助于分析不同灌溉方法的灌溉效应。     

Effect of irrigation methods on root development and profile soil water uptake in winter wheat

The 2-year field experiments were carried out to research the effect of different irrigation methods, namely border irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and surface drip irrigation, on root development and profile water uptake in winter wheat. Results showed that the main root distribution zone moved upward under sprinkler and surface drip irrigation when compared to the traditional border irrigation. Profile root distribution pattern changed with irrigation methods. Soil profile water uptake was correlated to the root system and soil water dynamics. Due to the appropriate soil water and higher root density in the surface soil layer under sprinkler and surface drip irrigation, the main water uptake zone was concentrated in the upper layer. Because of the water deficit in the surface layer under border irrigation, water uptake in 50–100 cm depth was stimulated, which caused the main uptake zone downward. The amount and pattern of root water uptake varied with irrigation methods. This may provide valuable information on the aspect of agricultural management.     

On-demand pressurized water distribution system impacts on sprinkler network design and performance

On-farm irrigation networks are designed for optimum performance at a specific upstream pressure head. In pressurized water distribution systems operating on demand, the upstream pressure head of the on-farm network can be subject to high and continuous fluctuations depending on the number of the hydrants being simultaneously opened. In this paper, a methodology combining network design and performance analysis of a sprinkler network is described and applied to an irrigation distribution system operating at two different water demands (1,200 and 600 l s⁻¹) using a case study in Italy. Four designs of the same sprinkler network were optimized at different upstream designing pressure and were evaluated at all the possible operating conditions of the system. The expensive large pipe size diameter design presented the best performance and the highest reliability at a wide range of hydrant pressure while the small pipe size designs have the tendency to fail during the peak water demand period as a result of low hydrant pressure. Flow regulators within the hydrants showed to have an important role in stabilizing the network performance at elevated upstream pressure head.     

不同灌溉方式下玉米节水增产效果试验研究

在降雨、灌溉水量和前期土壤特性一定的情况下,对玉米在喷灌、滴灌、渗灌3种灌溉方式下的土壤水分变化特性和玉米生育特性进行了试验研究,分析了各种灌溉方式下玉米的生长特性和玉米地土壤水分的变化规律。试验结果表明：渗灌的节水增产效果最好,产量比滴灌增加1．3％,水分生产率由2．64kg／m^3提高到2．68kg／m^3;比喷灌增加6．3％,水分生产率由2．52kg／m^3提高到2．68kg／m^3。     

Irrigation with brackish water under desert conditions I. Problems and solutions in production of onions (Allium cepa L.)

To identify the problems and suggest solutions for onion production under brackish water irrigation in a desert environment, a series of trials with brackish water (electrical conductivity, EC_i = 4.4 dS/m) and fresh water (EC_i = 1.2 dS/m) was conducted, using both sprinkler and drip irrigation systems.Under sprinkler irrigation with brackish water the mean electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract ($\text{EC}$_e) was about 6.0 dS/m and the yield reduction was 60%. With drip irrigation, the $\text{EC}$_e under the drippers was about 5.0 dS/m and the yield reduction was 30%. Sprinkler irrigation affected yield through a reduction in both bulb size and bulb number per unit area. Drip irrigation affected the bulb number only. In the latter system seedling death occurred during the first 40 days following field emergence. Yield reduction was completely prevented by germinating and establishing the field with freshwater irrigation before transferring to brackish water irrigation, 45 days after sowing.With the sprinkler system, onion yield with brackish water irrigation could be increased by either increasing the sowing density or by alternating between brackish and fresh water irrigation.     

Responses of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) evapotranspiration and yield to sprinkler irrigation regimes

The North China Plain (NCP) is one of the main productive regions for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and summer maize (Zea mays L.) in China. However, water-saving irrigation technologies (WSITs), such as sprinkler irrigation technology and improved surface irrigation technology, and water management practices, such as irrigation scheduling have been adopted to improve field-level water use efficiency especially in winter wheat growing season, due to the water scarcity and continuous increase of water in industry and domestic life in the NCP. As one of the WSITs, sprinkler irrigation has been increasingly used in the NCP during the past 20 years. In this paper, a three-year field experiment was conducted to investigate the responses of volumetric soil water content (SWC), winter wheat yield, evapotranspiration (ET), water use efficiency (WUE) and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) to sprinkler irrigation regimes based on the evaporation from an uncovered, 20-cm diameter pan located 0-5 cm above the crop canopy in order to develop an appropriate sprinkler irrigation scheduling for winter wheat in the NCP. Results indicated that the temporal variations in SWC for irrigation treatments in the 0-60-cm soil layer were considerably larger than what occurred at deeper depths, whereas temporal variations in SWC for non-irrigation treatments were large throughout the 0-120-cm soil layer. Crop leaf area index, dry biomass, 1000-grains weight and yield were negatively affected by water stress for those treatments with irrigation depth less than 0.50E, where E is the net evaporation (which includes rainfall) from the 20-cm diameter pan. While irrigation with a depth over 1.0E also had negative effect on 1000-grains weight and yield. The seasonal ET of winter wheat was in a range of 206-499 mm during the three years experiments. Relatively high yield, WUE and IWUE were found for the irrigation depth of 0.63E. Therefore, for winter wheat in the NCP the recommended amount of irrigation to apply for each event is the total 0.63E that occurred after the previous irrigation provided total E is in a range of 30-40 mm.     

不同节水灌溉技术的节水机理试验研究

根据甘肃省特殊自然地理条件，对于喷灌、滴灌、渗灌及波涌灌几种方式下，小麦和玉米两种作物的灌溉节水机理进行了对比试验研究，分析了不同节水灌溉方式下这两种作物的节水性和生育动态。试验结果表明，在降雨、灌溉水量和前期土壤特性一定的情况下，在喷灌、滴灌、渗灌及波涌灌几种节水灌溉技术中，渗灌的节水性最好，依次为滴灌、喷灌、波涌灌。小麦和玉米在渗灌条件下产量比滴灌、喷灌和波涌灌都高，小麦渗灌产量比滴灌增加7．6％，比喷灌增加13．1％，比波涌灌增加22．4％。玉米渗灌产量比滴灌增加1．3％．比喷道增加6．3％。     

中国节水农业技术与产品需求分析

发展节水农业作为解决我国水资源日益短缺的一项革命性措施,近年来正受到国家和全社会的高度重视,迎来了我国节水农业快速发展的大好时机,这对节水农业技术发展和产品需求产生了巨大的促进与推动作用。我国节水农业技术与产品需求主要体现在生物节水超级品种培育技术、作物高效用水生理调控与非充分灌溉技术、高效节水灌溉技术与产品、作物水分信息采集与精量控制灌溉技术及产品、旱作农业水分高效利用技术与产品、雨水集蓄与非常规水开发利用技术等方面,对管道输水灌溉产品、喷微灌产品、渠道防渗材料、制剂与地膜等节水产品构成潜在的巨大市场需求。。     

不同灌溉技术条件对冬小麦生产的影响

为了研究并得到3种不同灌溉技术（滴灌、喷灌、漫灌）对冬小麦产量及其构成的影响,在中国农业大学吴桥实验站设计了滴灌、喷灌、漫灌的大田试验.3种灌溉技术条件下,其灌溉总量相同,漫灌和喷灌采用浇底墒水加浇两水,滴灌采用浇底墒水加浇四水的方式;从冬小麦整个生长期内的作物高度、叶面积指数、籽粒重等指标,考察不同灌溉技术对冬小麦生产及其构成的影响.结果表明：滴灌条件下,表层含水量下降速度最小,整个生长期,含水量高于喷灌和漫灌;滴灌处理的叶面积指数最高,其次是喷灌;在成熟期,滴灌条件下,作物高度比漫灌高12%,比喷灌高5%;滴灌和喷灌的条件下产量分别比漫灌高8.63%,7.75%;滴灌、喷灌、漫灌的籽粒千粒重分别为43.36,42.17和41.17 g,滴灌和喷灌籽粒重明显高于漫灌,且生物量分别比漫灌提高了6.9%,3%.这说明3种灌溉技术中,滴灌技术最有利于实现节水保墒、小麦增产,其次是喷灌.     

Role of transpiration suppression by evaporation of intercepted water in improving irrigation efficiency

Sprinkler irrigation efficiency declines when applied water intercepted by the crop foliage, or gross interception (I_gross), as well as airborne droplets and ponded water at the soil surface evaporate before use by the crop. However, evaporation of applied water can also supply some of the atmospheric demands usually met by plant transpiration. Any suppression of crop transpiration from the irrigated area as compared to a non-irrigated area can be subtracted from I_gross irrigation application losses for a reduced, or net, interception (I_net) loss. This study was conducted to determine the extent in which transpiration suppression due to microclimatic modification resulting from evaporation of plant-intercepted water and/or of applied water can reduce total sprinkler irrigation application losses of impact sprinkler and low energy precision application (LEPA) irrigation systems. Fully irrigated corn (Zea Mays L.) was grown on 0.75 m wide east-west rows in 1990 at Bushland, TX in two contiguous 5-ha fields, each containing a weighing lysimeter and micrometeorological instrumentation. Transpiration (Tr) was measured using heat balance sap flow gauges. During and following an impact sprinkler irrigation, within-canopy vapor pressure deficit and canopy temperature declined sharply due to canopyintercepted water and microclimatic modification from evaporation. For an average day time impact irrigation application of 21 mm, estimated average I_gross loss was 10.7%, but the resulting suppression of measured Tr by 50% or more during the irrigation reduced I_gross loss by 3.9%. On days of high solar radiation, continued transpiration suppression following the irrigation reduced I_gross loss an additional 1.2%. Further 4–6% reductions in I_gross losses were predicted when aerodynamic and canopy resistances were considered. Irrigation water applied only at the soil surface by LEPA irrigation had little effect on the microclimate within the canopy and consequently on Tr or ET, or irrigation application efficiency.     

Irrigation planning in cotton through simulation modeling

Experiments were undertaken at CCS Haryana Agricultural University Farm, Sirsa (India) to estimate the optimum irrigation schedule for cotton resulting in minimum percolation losses. The sprinkler line source technique was adopted for creating various irrigation regimes at different crop growth stages. The SWASALT (Simulation of Water And SALT) model after calibration and validation provided water balance components. The wa-ter management response indicators (WMRI's) such as transpiration efficiency E_t/(Irr + P), relative transpiration E_t/E_tp, evapotranspiration efficiency ET/(Irr + P), soil moisture storage change ΔW/W_int (deficit/excess) and percolation loss Perc/(Irr. + P) were evaluated using water balance components as estimated by the simulation study. Under limited water supply conditions, the optimum irrigation depth was found to be 57 mm at crop growth stages with pre-sowing and 1^st irrigation of 120 mm and 80 mm respectively for sandy clay loam underlain by sandy loam soil (Type I). The corresponding values of relative transpiration, transpiration efficiency and evapotranspiration efficiency were 0.65, 0.65 and 0.89 respectively. The crop yield varied linearly with increasing irrigation depth which was evident from increase in relative transpiration with increasing depth of water application. However, increased depth of irrigation resulted in less moisture utilisation from soil storage (20% depletion at 40 mm depth and 4.4% moisture built up at 100 mm depth). The extended simulation study for sandy soil underlain by loamy sand (Type II) indicated that two pre-sowing irrigations each 40 mm and subsequent irrigations of 40 mm at an interval of 20 days depending upon rainfall were optimum. This irrigation scenario resulted in zero percolation loss accompanied by 74% relative transpiration and 14 per cent soil moisture depletion. Received: 20 November 1995     

Soil evaporation from drip-irrigated olive orchards

Evaporation from the soil (E_s) in the areas wetted by emitters under drip irrigation was characterised in the semi-arid, Mediterranean climate of Córdoba (Spain). A sharp discontinuity in E_s was observed at the boundary of the wet zone, with values decreasing sharply in the surrounding dry area. A single mean value of evaporation from the wet zone (E_sw) was determined using microlysimeters. Evaporation from the wet zones of two drip-irrigated olive orchards was clearly higher than the corresponding values of E_s calculated assuming complete and uniform soil wetting (E_so), demonstrating the occurrence of micro-scale advection in olive orchards under drip irrigation. Measurements over several days showed that the increase in evaporation due to microadvection was roughly constant regardless of location and of the fraction of incident radiation reaching the soil. Thus, daily evaporation from wet drip-irrigated soil areas (E_sw) could be estimated as the sum of E_so and an additive microadvective term (T_MA). To quantify the microadvective effects, we developed variable local advective conditions by locating a single emitter in the centre of a 1.5 ha bare plot which was subjected to drying cycles. E_sw increased relative to E_so as the soil dried and advective heat transfer increased evaporation from the area wetted by the emitter. The microadvective effects on E_s were quantified using a microadvective coefficient (K_sw), defined as the ratio between E_sw and E_so. A model was then developed to calculate T_MA for different environmental and orchard conditions. The model was validated by comparing measured E_sw against simulated evaporation (E_so+T_MA) for different soil positions and environmental conditions in two drip-irrigated olive orchards. The mean absolute error of the prediction was 0.53 mm day^-1, which represents about a 7% error in evaporation. The model was used to evaluate the relative importance of seasonal E_s losses during an irrigation season under Córdoba conditions. Evaporation from the emitter zones (E_sw) represented a fraction of seasonal orchard evapotranspiration (ET), which ranged from 4% to 12% for a mature (36% ground cover) and from 18% to 43% of ET for a young orchard (5% ground cover), depending on the fraction of soil surface wetted by the emitters. Estimated potential water savings by shifting from surface to subsurface drip ranged from 18 to 58 mm in a mature orchard and from 28 to 93 mm in a young orchard, assuming daily drip applications and absence of rainfall during the irrigation season.     

中国喷灌机现状与发展思考

基于水利统计数据,分析了近10 a中国节水灌溉应用分布,发现东北以喷灌为主,西北以微灌为主,华北以低压管灌为主,华东以渠道灌溉为主,具有明显的区域特征,节水灌溉仍有50%发展空间,喷灌技术占比与欧美国家相比仍然偏低.总结回顾了中国喷灌机发展历程、研究进展和发展趋势.从国家政策引导、智慧农业发展、农业种植结构变化和盐碱地耕地改造4个方面,分析了在资源环境约束挑战下中国喷灌机的发展机遇.阐明了喷灌的优势和不可替代作用,指出随着中国高标准农田建设及农业规模化经营稳步推进,喷灌机性能及功能不断增强,使以往喷灌的局限性逐步转变成发展优势.最后从补齐农业全程机械化短板、水肥药一体化作业新模式和无人化智能化方面展望了中国喷灌机未来发展前景.     

Optimization of groundwater abstraction system and distribution pipe in pressurized irrigation systems for minimum cost

A tool named DOPIR (Dimensioning Of Pressurized IRrigation) was developed to optimize the process of water abstraction from an aquifer for pressurized irrigation systems. This tool integrates the main factors throughout the irrigation process, from the water source to the emitter. The objective is to minimize the total cost of water abstraction and application (C _T) (investment (C _a) + operation (C _op) per unit of irrigated area according to the type of aquifer, crop water requirement and electricity rate periods. To highlight the usefulness of this tool, DOPIR has been applied to a corn crop in Spain with a permanent sprinkler irrigation system, considering two types of aquifer: confined and unconfined. The effects of parameters such as the static water table in the aquifer (SWT), irrigated area (S), number of subunits in the plot (NS), sprinkler and lateral pipe spacing, and average application rate (ARa) on C _T have been analyzed. Results show that energy cost (C _e) is the most important component of C _T (50–72 % in the case studies). Thus, it is very important to adapt the design and management of the irrigation and pumping system throughout the irrigation season to the energy rate periods.