Orthogonal cutting mechanics of maple: modeling a solid wood-cutting process

The experimental results of orthogonal cutting of maple and the modeling of the cutting mechanics are presented. The tool cutting forces were measured for different feed rates. A set of equations relating the tangential and feed forces to the tool edge width and feed rate (chip thickness) to calculate the chip and edge cutting force coefficients was developed. Then the chip force and edge force coefficients were calculated from experimentally obtained cutting forces and were plotted in a polar-coordinate system with respect to the fiber orientation of the maple disk. The polar-coordinate presentation of the cutting force results and the calculated cutting force coefficients provides an excellent visual appreciation of the relation between the cutting forces and the wood fiber orientation. Chips were also collected from various sectors of the wood disk. This analysis further identified the effects of fiber orientation and cutting forces on the types of chip formed and hence the cutting mechanics involved. By applying the calculated cutting coefficients for each tool orientation (in respect to the grain) it is possible to predict the feed and tangential forces for any feed rates. There is good agreement between the predicted and measured cutting forces.     

STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF CUTTING FORCES ON OBLIQUE CUTTING OF WOOD

Oblique cutting of wood is an important form of cutting wood.With the developingof woodworking industry,it is widely used in wood machinary processing such as planing,milling,sawing,drilling and so on.This paper takes oblique planing and helix milling of wood as examples.The influences of bevel angle and other factors on the cutting force have been shown.The changingrules of cutting forces have been summarized.On the basis of it,we especially carried out theoreticalanalysis on the changing rules of cutting forces and discussed the influence of the changing rules onpractice.     

Evaluation of wood cutting forces in dry and wet conditions by small-scale chipping tests applying different analysis methods

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to study the effect of high moisture content in comparison to dry timber on the resulting cutting forces based on experimental small-scale chipping tests. Therefore, a wood chipper for single cuts is designed and different species of Austrian locally growing trees are utilized. The test specimens are investigated in almost dry and soaked wet conditions. The resistance of wood is measured utilizing a force sensor and the signal during the cutting process is subsequently analysed by two different methods. The results reveal that the mean value of the acting force during cutting is 38–81% minor compared to the maximum force. Even though the peak of the dynamically acting load is measured for just a comparably small time range, it reveals an impact on the fatigue behaviour of the tool as well as the tool supporting material. Hence, an approach of evaluated load spectra is applied to include the load distribution of the chipping process. The effect of dry and wet wood on the cutting resistance is examined, whereby wood exhibiting a high moisture content of 30–40% changes the acting load up to 98%, depending on the method of analysis.     

自制测力仪用于木材三向切削力的测定

评定木材切削刀具的切削性能及切削表面的加工质量时，均需测定木材切削时的三向切削力：主切削力、进给力及侧向力，因此设计一台合适的三向测力仪成为关键。本文以单一八角环为基础，引申出单向延伸式八角环、组合式八角环及双向延伸式八角环测力仪，并逐一分析其结构特点及应用于木材三向切削力测定的可行性。最终确定双向延伸式四耳环八角环性能最优，并对其进行设计、制选、标定及切削试验。试验结果表明该型完全符合木材三向切削力测定的要求。     

Wear and blunting of the tool corner in cutting a wood-based material

Summary A study was made of relationships between wear (loss of metal) and blunting (reduced performance) of the corner of a steel cutting tool turning a work-piece of hard fibreboard. Rake angle, clearance angle and surface preparation (grinding, polishing) were varied and measurements made were the three cutting force components and various wear parameters. It was confirmed that retraction of the edge from its initial position is not a satisfactory index of blunting and that the shape parameter corresponding to compression of the cut surface (negative clearance) was most influential. Also, for the particular tool and work-piece materials used and in the practical range of bluntness, the ratio of negative clearance to the width of the back wear land, as measured parallel to the cutting plane, was roughly constant. It is evident that development of a hard, very thin layer on the back face would minimize negative clearance and extend sharpening life. In the practical range for cutting wood and wood-based materials, clearance angle had a relatively small effect on the rate at which negative clearance and cutting forces increased, and rake angle had negligible effects. It is concluded that these angles should not be increased without taking into account factors other than blunting. Polishing considerably decreased blunting rate, especially of the tool corner, which is especially important in sawing. The expense of polishing may be justified in some exacting operations.     

Towards a model predicting cutting forces and surface quality in routing layered boards

The general aim of work reported here was to assist designers and operators of routers and similar tools for cutting wood-composite boards, by providing a model predicting cutting force components from readily available material properties. This initial study explored, for edge cutting, the variation within a single medium density fibre board across the thickness and in various cutting directions in the plane of the board. Material properties of interest were specific gravity and friction coefficient. In slow linear cutting on a modified milling machine, carbide router inserts cut the edges of layers cut from a medium density fibre board. Specific gravity and coefficient of sliding friction were measured for each layer. Cuts were also made on full-thickness edges in various directions in the plane of the board. Chip thickness was varied from 0.025 to 0.8 mm. Parallel and normal force data and digital video images of chip formation were stored for analysis. Specific gravity increased as the fourth power of the distance from the central plane to the surface. Friction coefficient values, estimated both from cutting forces and from rubbing forces during return, varied about a value of 0.23, with no significant difference between layers. The values for cutting force per mm width of cut increased progressively from the central plane to the surface, in a logarithmic relation with specific gravity. The cutting forces did not vary with cutting direction in the plane of the board. For a sharp edge with 32° rake angle cutting at chip thickness values above 0.1 mm, the normal force component was negative, indicating reduced feed force and improved surface quality. With dulling, the threshold value of chip thickness for this increased. It is concluded that elaboration of this approach would generate relationships suitable for incorporating in a useful general model. However, it may be found that weight per unit area of board will suffice as a proxy for cutting resistance in modelling the cutting of full-thickness edges. Received 10 June 1999     

Friction mechanisms in wood cutting

The variation of the coefficient of friction with normal load and tool surface finish in slow speed orthogonal cutting of white fir was investigated to determine the relative importance of different sources of friction. Cutting forces were measured as a function of tool-chip contact length and tool surface roughness. The coefficient of friction was independent of tool roughness for roughness in the range of typically well-finished cutting tools but did become a factor for large values of tool surface roughness. The data indicate that for well-finished cutting tools the primary friction mechanism is adhesion between the tool and work and that for rough tool surfaces the effect of tool surface asperities (unevennesses) as they advance through the chip becomes an important source of friction.     

沙松扦插繁殖技术研究

以沙松硬枝和嫩枝插穗为材料进行正交扦插试验,研究穗条母株年龄大小、药品种类、质量浓度、处理时间以及基质不同种类、穗条不同类型与不同着生部位对生根的影响,结果表明:影响硬枝和嫩枝扦插生根的主要因素均为穗条母树年龄大小,年龄越小,生根率越高,最优处理组合均为4~10 a母树穗条,用200 mg·L-1ABT1号生根粉浸泡12 h,生根率分别为21.4%、63.9%;嫩枝扦插生根率高于硬枝扦插,差异达到极显著水平。采用1/2珍珠岩+1/2河沙混合基质生根效果最好。穗条不同类型扦插生根存在差异,一级侧枝截制的穗条生根性状优于二级侧枝穗条和顶芽穗条,下部枝条截制的插穗生根率和根系效果均高于上部枝条。     

Theoretical computation and analysis of benefits of wood cutting power

This paper studies the problem of high energy waste in the course of the wood fiber processing in the wood-based panel industry. In the light of the energy economy principle, the cutting theory on the micron and long-slice wood fiber was put forward. In this paper, by means of analyzing the power waste in traditional processing, a series of analytical measures, such as, cytology, super precision work theory and fiber processing, and so on were utilized in the micron wood fiber formation process, and the cutting conception of the micron and long-slice wood fiber was put forward. Accordingly, the study of the micron and long-slice wood fiber was put into the microstructure study. This paper scientifically explains the reasons why the traditional wood fiber processing consumes more energy and the fiber quality low. In an example, the cutting power on the micron and long-slice wood fiber was calculated, which was compared with the traditional cutting power. The result showed that the energy waste by machining at micron is much lower than by heat grind and the high quality and long-slice wood fiber was gained. Thus, a revolutionary step was taken in the paper-making and wood-based panel industry of China. __________ Translated from Scientia Silvae Sinicae, 2006, 42(3): 44–46 [译自: 林业科学 2006, 42(3): 44–46]     

Recent developments in wood machining processes: Novel cutting techniques

Summary Three new approaches to kerfless wood cutting are evaluated: (1) vibrating cutters; (2) high-velocity liquid jet; and (3) laser beam. Their origin and recent developments are discussed in detail, based on the current research findings. Particular emphasis is placed on the possibilities for industrial application of these techniques.From this evaluation it is apparent that the high-velocity liquid jet and laser beam offer great potential in secondary manufacture, in particular for cutting of intricate contours and complex computer-controlled operations. Kerfless cutting with vibrating cutters cannot be objectively evaluated at present because of lack of sufficient theoretical and experimental work.     

The effect of cutting height and frequency on the forage,wood and seed production of sixSesbania sesban accessions

The forage, wood and seed production of sixSesbania sesban accessions was assessed under irrigated conditions for two cutting frequencies and heights. Control trees were left uncut to measure their seed production potential. The trial was conducted over an 18-month period. The fastest growing accession produced almost 10 t/ha total dry matter (DM) after six months of growth, 40% of it being leaves. Total DM yield was higher at the six-month cutting interval compared to the three months' interval with yields between 25–42 t/ha/year. Some accessions could not sustain their high level of production but showed drastic drops in yield after repeated cutting. In general leaf DM production increased with increased cutting height. When cut at 150 cm the DM leaf yield at the three-month cutting interval ranged form 9.7–18.2 t/ha. More plants survived at the three-month cutting frequency. Seed yields varied considerably between accessions (0.02–1.56 t/ha at the six months' interval). After 18 months of undisturbed growth the trees yielded 36.5–83.7 t/ha total DM comprising 21% leaves. Fresh wood biomass ranged between 56.4–138.0 t/ha and seed yields 2.7–6.6 t/ha.     

Knife slicing of wood across the grain

Summary This paper investigates a method for slicing thick pieces of wood across the grain using a sharp steel knife, and it demonstrates the effectiveness of the knife slicing process at an experimental level. In order to highlight the key parameters facilitating or hindering the thick slicing process, several factors affecting the cutting forces and the cut surface quality have been studied; the blade geometry, the effect of friction, the cutting speed, the boundary load constraints and the wood moisture content. The results indicate that a large proportion of the cutting force may be related to the wedging action of the blade in the wood. Therefore, significant reductions in the cutting energy can be achieved by optimising the blade shape. A simple homogeneous strain model has been developed which quantifies the cutting forces in terms of the blade angle and the blade surface friction. The results from this theoretical model are compared with the experimental findings and discussed in relation to methods for improving the cutting technique.This work was funded by the Foundation for Research Science and Technology. This support is gratefully acknowledged     

小花溲疏全光喷雾嫩枝扦插繁殖技术

依据长期的育苗实践经验,在利用全光照喷雾扦插育苗技术下,综合介绍了小花溲疏嫩枝扦插的苗床设置、插穗收集、扦插、苗期管理各技术,以期为小花溲疏的扩繁提供参考。     

切削方向对木材切削力的影响

以杉木、樟子松、水曲柳等三种木材为试验对象,采用闭式切削方式,研究切削方向对木材主切削力的影响.结果表明:不同切削方向时,木材主切削力大小具有明显的各向异性,主要趋势为端向主切削力最大,横向最小.相同切削方向时,水曲柳主切削力最大,杉木最小;木材不同截面的主切削力呈现规律性变化,但3种木材间的差异较大.     

卫生采伐对新源县退化野苹果无性繁殖与更新的影响

为给野苹果的管护和更新复壮提供参考,在新疆新源县野苹果林设置样地,调查野苹果生存状况与卫生采伐后的保留体萌生枝、根蘖苗和干基苗的生长特征。针对野苹果生存状况,卫生采伐以保留存活树体为原则,将自然死亡、受病虫危害和其他自然因素损伤的部分伐除。结果表明:研究区域中,存活Ⅰ~Ⅵ级野苹果的数量比例分别为4.03%、24.19%、21.77%、1.21%、12.50%和36.29%,其中Ⅲ级~Ⅵ级属于濒危至死亡的个体占71.77%,种群数量衰亡现象严重。经卫生采伐后的野苹果林地内,存在受较轻度干扰和中度以上卫生干扰等多种野苹果个体类型,其中野苹果树受中度以上卫生干扰后形成伐桩、头木和截枝木3类数量较多的保留体,其平均高度分别为(0.58±0.25)、(2.47±0.90)和(7.59±1.99)m,基径分别为(22.33±1.76)、(23.13±2.10)和(24.52±2.06)cm,三者的基径之间有显著差异,存活率由高到低依次为截枝木、头木、伐桩。野苹果可天然繁殖根蘖苗和干基苗,伐桩、头木和截枝木3类保留体还可产生萌生枝,且萌生枝在3种无性繁殖苗中生长力最强,其次是根蘖苗,干基苗最弱,未发现萌生枝代替主干和根蘖苗建成幼树(胸径≥5cm)的更新现象。保留体的3种无性繁殖苗中,仅萌生枝可生长发育到具有繁殖种子的能力,可开花和结果的保留体分别占26.66%和22.77%,比例由高到低依次为截枝木、头木、伐桩。尽早对衰亡严重的野苹果进行生态性的卫生采伐,既可减缓野苹果退化,又可促进保留体的无性繁殖与复壮更新。     

紫椴硬枝扦插技术

在紫椴硬枝扦插育苗时，利用NK4、NK3进行处理，其生根率分别达到87.7%、86.0%。     

Application of fracture mechanics for energetic effects predictions while wood sawing

In the classical approach, energetic effects (cutting forces and cutting power) of wood sawing process are generally calculated on the basis of the specific cutting resistance, which is in the case of wood cutting the function of more or less important factors. On the other hand, cutting forces (or power—more interesting from energetic point of view) could be considered from a point of view of modern fracture mechanics. Cutting forces may be employed to determine not only toughness but also shear yield strength, which are then applied in the models. Furthermore, forecasting of the shear plane angle for the cutting models, which include fracture toughness in addition to plasticity and friction, broadens possibilities of energetic effects modelling of the sawing process even for small values of the uncut chip. Mentioned models are useful for estimation of energetic effects of sawing of every kinematics. However, for band saws and circular sawing machines, the chip acceleration power variation as a function of mass flow and tool velocity ought to be included in analysis of sawing at larger cutting speeds.     

3个中国沙棘优良品种扦插技术研究

针对辽西地区沙棘资源发展现状,以3个中国沙棘优良类型中红果、中黄果、中无刺为研究材料,对其苗木繁育技术进行了深入系统的研究。结果表明,采用炉渣灰扦插基质、ABT生根粉1号、插穗长度10cm左右、扦插时间为6月21日左右,这种处理效果最佳,但从经济角度考虑,最宜采用鲜河沙作为基质。中国沙棘苗木繁育采用裸地沙盘全光喷雾嫩枝扦插快繁技术效果较好。沙棘硬枝扦插的成苗率受多种因素的制约,硬枝扦插时间为4月下旬至5月初,采用20cm长的插穗,2~3年生的插穗成苗率较高,生产中采用2年生的插穗。     

Characteristics of sugar maple wood surfaces machined with the fixed-oblique knife pressure-bar cutting system

Oblique cutting differs from orthogonal cutting by an inclination given to the knife edge, which induces several changes on tool geometry, cutting forces, as well as on the quality of machined surfaces. In this work, a pressure bar was used during oblique cutting to reduce the occurrence of torn grain. The effects of cutting depth, rake angle, and oblique angle on cutting forces and surface quality were studied. Surface topography, cell damage and wetting properties were used to assess surface quality. All force components were increased by increasing cutting depth and decreasing rake and oblique angles. The lateral force, however, increased as the oblique angle increased. The surface roughness increased with increasing the lateral cutting force. Higher cutting depths and oblique angles tended to provide higher surface roughness, while higher rake angles tended to reduce surface roughness. The pressure bar was not always able to completely prevent the occurrence of defects when cutting against the grain. The occurrence of machining defects increased at higher cutting depths and oblique angles. As the rake angle decreased, the type of machining defect tended to change from torn grain to slight fuzzy grain. Moreover, the best wetting properties were obtained at lower rake angles, as they induced higher surface roughness. A 25° rake angle, a 30° oblique angle, and thinner cutting depths should be preferred to reduce dependence on ulterior sanding.