Fleshy Fruits Eating Birds and Their Role in the Seed Dispersal of Plants in of Plants in Maoer Mountain,NE China

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Inhibition by pulp juice and enhancement by ingestion on germination of bird-dispersedPrunus seeds

To evaluate what prevents seed germination and why ingestion by birds enhances germination, we carried out germination experiments using bird-dispersed seeds of twoPrunus species (Prunus sargentii andP. ssiori) in the laboratory. Germination of seeds with following four treatments was compared: “Ingested seeds” excreted after feeding of fruits to birds; “Extracted seeds” deliberately extracted from the fruit pulp; “Juiced seeds” which were supplemented with the juice of the pulp after seeds had been deliberately extracted from the pulp; and “Intact seeds” in untreated whole fruits. Many ingested (27%, 23% inP. sargentii, 18% inP. ssiori) and extracted seeds (24% inP. sargentii, 17% inP. ssiori) germinated, and difference in germination percentages between ingested and extracted seeds were not significant, for eitherPrunus species. The Juiced seeds rarely germinated (2% inP. sargentii, 6% inP. ssiori), and seeds within intact fruits did not germinate. These results suggest that the fruit pulp and the juice of the pulp inhibit germination and the seeds could germinate without ingestion by birds once they had been manually extracted from pulp. Therefore, it is considered that bird ingestion enahnces germination by removing pulp, especially juice of the pulp, in these twoPrunus species.     

Negative effect of removing pulp from unripe fleshy fruits: seed germination pattern of Celtis sinensis in relation to the temporal context of fruit consumption

We explored the temporal effects of fruit consumption on the subsequent seed germination pattern of a fleshy-fruited tree, the Chinese hackberry (Celtis sinensis). Via nursery-based sowing experiments, we investigated (1) how pulp removal affected seed germination patterns at the different stages of fruit maturation, and (2) how the timing of seed dispersal (August, October, and December) affected the germination patterns of seeds from ripe fruits after the removal of pulp. We found that the removal of pulp from around the seeds of ripe fruit had no effect on the percentage and timing of germination. In contrast, the removal of pulp from seeds of unripe fruits largely reduced the germination percentage. The time of sowing did not affect the germination percentage, whereas the timing of germination was delayed for seeds that were sown later or under shaded environments.     

Seed dispersal networks in an urban novel ecosystem

The conflict resulting from the expansion of human activities into natural habitats affects the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Similarly, the anthropogenic redistribution of many species all over the world affects the composition of biological communities, possibly altering their capacity to sustain key ecological functions, such as seed dispersal. Urban parks are extreme examples of such novel ecosystems resulting from the anthropogenic redistribution of species in a new ecological framework. Here, we describe the avian seed dispersal network in an urban recreational woodland in central Portugal (c.79 ha). Four quantitative seed dispersal networks were assembled by identifying intact seeds in the droppings of mist-netted birds throughout the year. Overall, 1,244 seeds were identified, representing 33 links between 15 plant species and 11 bird species. Most birds dispersed alien seeds, but these represented a small proportion of the overall network (20 % of the seeds and 13 % of the droppings). Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) was the main disperser of native and alien seeds in all seasons, particularly those of the invasive Phytolacca americana. Fleshy fruits were more abundant in summer, but were more consumed in winter, presumably when other foods were difficult to find. Our study suggests that even in a highly managed urban park, seed dispersal networks can be temporally complex and variable and that a network approach can be an important monitoring tool to detect the status of crucial ecosystem functions in rapidly changing habitats such as urban parks.     

Flying vs. climbing: Factors controlling arboreal seed removal in oak-beech forests

Nuts are heavy and nutritious seeds that need animals to be successfully dispersed. Most studies address nut removal by a single animal species once seeds fall onto the ground. However, nuts are also accessible before the seed drop and usually to a wide guild of seed foragers. This study examines the factors controlling arboreal seed removal in oak-beech forests within the whole guild of nut foragers. We found that seed-dispersing rodents (Apodemus sylvaticus) were the main acorn removers in the oaks (up to 3.75 m height), with a rapid seed encounter and a high removal rate. However, rodents did not climb the beech trees, probably due to their smoother bark in comparison to oak bark and/or the lower nutritional value of beechnuts with regard to acorns. Jays (Garrulus glandarius) were more abundant in oak stands (both dense and scattered) and clearly preferred acorns to beechnuts whereas nuthatches (Sitta europaea) were more abundant in beech stands and preferred beechnuts to acorns. Non-storing birds such as great tits (Parus major) also removed acorns and beechnuts, especially in the stands where oaks are dominant. Jays and rodents preferred sound seeds over insect-infested seeds but such a preference was not found for nuthatches. This study highlights that pure beech stands showed a reduced guild of arboreal nut foragers in comparison to oak stands. This different guild could probably affect the spatial patterns of seed dispersal, with a proportionally higher number of long dispersal events for acorns (mostly jay-dispersed) than for beechnuts (mostly nuthatch-dispersed). Long-distance dispersal of beechnuts (by jays) is determined by the presence of other preferred species (oaks) and their frequency of non-mast years. Seed location in different habitats strongly determines the contribution of different arboreal removers (including climbing rodents) and their removal speed, leading to a differential seed fate that will eventually affect tree regeneration. As nuthatches are sedentary birds, it is important to maintain old and dead trees where they can breed (crevices), forage (arthropods) and store seeds in order to favor beechnut dispersal and gene flow. By maintaining or favoring oak trees within beech stands we will ensure a wider guild of arboreal nut dispersers.     

Timing of shedding seeds and cones, and production in different stands of Scots pines at Abernethy Forest, Scotland

A study was carried out over 11 seed years on the timing ofshedding of seeds and cones, and annual seed fall and cone productionin three stands of native Scots pinewood and a Scots pine plantationin Abernethy Forest, Scotland. Peaks in seed fall took placemainly in May, and cones were shed mainly between June and August.There were few residual seeds remaining in shed cones. Synchronizedpeaks in seed fall and cone production (mast years) took placeat 3-year intervals across the different stands. The differencebetween cohorts of high and low cone production ranged fromfactors of 5 to 20 among sites. Coefficients of variation forcone production ranged from 62 to 84 per cent among sites. Therewere no significant differences in cone production among sites,but there were site-related differences in seed fall. The largercanopy cover in the plantation probably accounted for the higherseed fall per square metre there, though variations in the amountof seed eaten by birds and mammals may also have been important.Canopy cover needs to be considered when converting cone densitiesunder crowns to cone density per unit of woodland area. A similarcalculation is difficult for seeds because they are lighterthan cones and many fall outside the area under the crowns.The results are discussed in relation to the potential for treeregeneration and the availability of food for birds and mammalsprior to seed dispersal.     

The Role of the White-Winged Guan (Penelope albipennis) in Seed Dispersal and Predation in Tumbesian Dry Forest,Peru

The white-winged guan (Penelope albipennis, Cracidae), thought extinct until 1979, today numbers <300 individuals. We investigated the role of the guans in seed dispersal and predation dynamics by recording seed germination from fecal samples of wild birds during the dry-season (May–December 2010). This study was conducted at Chaparri Ecological Preserve, in the critically endangered Tumbesian ecosystem on the western slope of the Andes. Field observations show that this bird is a frugivore; Cordia lutea (Boraginaceae) was the primary fruit consumed of the eight species of seeds collected from droppings. Collected seeds were sown in pots under nursery conditions and monitored for germination. Germination rates of passed seeds for Cordia lutea were compared to those that had been collected from a control group of trees. Germination was significantly different between fecal and control seeds, suggesting the plant germinated better after passing through the guans alimentary tract. The identification of flower structures, and digested seeds in feces show that guans can be effective fruit and flower predators. This study provides further information regarding the diet for conservation of the white-winged guan and suggests the bird may aid seed germination in some instances and may act as a predator in others.     

Colonization of fleshy-fruited plants beneath perch plant species that bear fleshy fruit

We evaluated the contribution of seed dispersal by birds to the colonization of fleshy-fruited plants beneath plants that bear fleshy fruits and were used as perches by birds. Specifically, we investigated the composition of seeds and saplings sampled beneath nine fleshy-fruited perch plant species in a Pinus thunbergii stand on a coastal sand dune in central Japan. Both the numbers and the species numbers of bird-dispersed (pulpless) seeds differed significantly among the perch plant species. Nevertheless, the quantitative compositions of bird-dispersed seeds were similar among the perch plant species because of the significant positive interspecific correlations of species rank order in numbers of bird-dispersed seeds per species. Similar relationships were also found for saplings. For each perch plant species, the numbers of fallen conspecific seeds were significantly higher than or not different from those of heterospecific seeds. Furthermore, the numbers of pulpy seeds that fell directly from the perch plant were significantly higher than those of bird-dispersed conspecific seeds for seven of nine perch plant species. However, the densities of conspecific saplings were significantly lower than those of heterospecific saplings. Most pulpy seeds, therefore, probably do not germinate beneath their mother plants, and conspecific seeds probably accumulate in seed banks or are consumed by herbivores.     

Tree Recruitment from On-site Versus Off-site Propagule Sources During Tropical Forest Succession

The management of successional forests has become an increasingly important tool for tropical forest restoration on disturbed lands. Successful management depends on understanding factors governing tree recruitment during succession. Recruits can be on-site propagules surviving disturbance (e.g. saplings) or seeds arriving after disturbance. Among disturbed sites, the importance of seed arrival from off-site should increase as availability of on-site propagules declines. This study examines how seed arrival from off-site seemed to influence natural forest regrowth on logged plantations in Uganda. Specifically, the effect of seed arrival from mammals (determined directly) and birds (determined inferentially) was estimated in two plantations with high and three plantations with low quantities of saplings surviving logging. In both plantation types, first-year recruitment seemed to originate from on-site (seed bank and sprouts from damaged trees) and off-site sources (seed-dispersing birds). Recruitment declined 2–3 years after logging in all plantations despite high densities of seed-dispersing birds. Recruitment was generally greater in plantations with low initial quantities of on-site propagules, and by 4–6 years forest structure was similar between plantation types. Recruitment was dominated by bird-dispersed species, rather than mammal- or wind-dispersed species. Taken together, these results illustrate that disturbed areas with low initial on-site propagule availability have much potential for forest regrowth.     

Intra and inter-annual variation in seed rain in a secondary dry tropical forest excluded from chronic disturbance

Domestic livestock grazing and firewood extraction are chronic and pervasive disturbances in dry secondary forest that reduce diversity and modify composition. Exclosure of such disturbances may allow the reestablishment of original diversity. To investigate potential vegetation recovery following 30 years of perturbation, seed rain was evaluated monthly during 3 years in 96 0.78 m² seed traps located in eight exclosures established in 2006 in a species-poor secondary dry forest in central Mexico. Twelve additional seed traps were located outside the exclosures in 2010 for comparison purposes. Baseline diversity of seed sources (trees, ?5 cm DBH) was recorded to compare standing tree composition with seed rain. Also, baseline diversity of potential primary (birds) and secondary (ants) dispersal vectors were registered to infer current plant-animal interactions. Total seed rain over 3 years within the exclosures comprised 180,375 seeds from 61 woody species, an average of 1.12 seeds/m²/month. Half of these species (31) and 95% of the seeds falling within the exclosures belonged to trees typical of perturbed sites. Sixty percent of all recorded seeds belonged to an early-successional, bird-dispersed shrub (Hamelia patens Jacq., Rubiaceae). Seed rain at one non-excluded plot was dominated by the wind-dispersed early-successional tree Heliocarpus sp. (Tiliaceae). Richness and seed density increased significantly in the second year of exclusion; however, by the third year, richness remained constant while seed density decreased. Seed rain was richer and more abundant during the dry season and was dominated by wind-dispersed species. Phenology, successional status and the dispersal modes of woody species explained most variance in richness and seed density of seed rain in early-successional dry forest. Seeds of early-successional species were dispersed in equal measure by abiotic and biotic vectors, whereas biotic vectors dispersed a higher density of late-successional seeds. The amount and timing of fall of abiotically dispersed seeds of the three most abundant species in the standing tree community may prolong their current domination of the landscape. However, even when richness in the seed rain within exclosures remained constant through time, composition was gradually shifting towards animal-dispersed species which may start a positive feedback producing an increase in animal visitation and a further increase of richness.     

Tiptoeing between restoration and invasion: seed rain into natural gaps within a highly invaded relic forest in the Azores

The last remains of native laurel forest in the Azores are highly threatened by the spread of invasive plants. Because landslides are very frequent in these islands, conservation of native laurel forest requires knowledge of the patterns of bird-dispersed seed rain into forest gaps. We monitored 78 seed traps over 1 year to investigate (1) the role of perches in attracting avian dispersers into gaps, (2) temporal patterns in the dispersal of exotic and native seeds, (3) how seed rain affects vegetation establishment in gaps at different distances from the native forest and (4) whether the caloric content of fruits could explain the number of seeds dispersed. Perches were highly effective in concentrating avian seed dispersal. While some native fruits are produced all year-round, most exotic plants set fruits during the main peak of the native fruit production (August–November). Most seeds recovered from the traps were native, and native seed rain inside the native forest was higher than in gaps. However, deposition of exotic seeds was not affected by distance from native forest. Seed dispersal frequencies monitored by seed traps and by faecal analysis were correlated with each other, but not with fruit caloric content, suggesting that other factors are more important that the nutritional value in predicting avian fruit choice. Forest restoration activities should take into consideration that seed dispersal decreases sharply beyond 100 m from native forest and the attractive potential of perches to direct natural seed dispersal into forest gaps.     

Building wood debris piles benefits avian seed dispersers in burned and logged Mediterranean pine forests

Salvage logging is a common practice carried out in burned forests worldwide, and intended to mitigate the economic losses caused by wildfires. Logging implies an additional disturbance occurring shortly after fire, although its ecological effects can be somewhat mitigated by leaving wood debris on site. The composition of the bird community and its capacity to provide ecosystem services such as seed dispersal of fleshy-fruited plants have been shown to be affected by postfire logging. We assessed the effects of the habitat structure resulting from different postfire management practices on the bird community, in three burned pine forests in Catalonia (western Mediterranean). For this purpose, we focused on the group of species that is responsible for seed dispersal, a process which takes place primarily during the winter in the Mediterranean basin. In addition, we assessed microhabitat selection by seed disperser birds in such environments in relation to management practices. Our results showed a significant, positive relationship between the density of wood debris piles and the abundance of seed disperser birds. Furthermore, such piles were the preferred microhabitat of these species. This reveals an important effect of forest management on seed disperser birds, which is likely to affect the dynamics of bird-dependent seed dispersal. Thus, building wood debris piles can be a useful practice for the conservation of both the species and their ecosystem services, while also being compatible with timber harvesting.     

Seed dispersal,dormancy, seedbank and regeneration of Amur corktree

Amur corktree (Phellodendron amurense Rupr.) is one of the important accompanying species of Korean pine (Pinus Koraiensis Sieb et Zuce) broadleaved forest in northeast China. This paper reports on the seed dispersal, dormancy, seed bank and regeneration of amur corktree. Seeds of amur corktree arc dispersed mainly by the aid of birds and gravity. The aril of the seeds may increase seed longevity. In natural secondary forests, the store of the seed bank may reach 750, 000 seeds per heetare. Regeneration was correlated wirh disturbance, and was best under intensive disturbance.     

Influence of floods on natural riparian forests along the Ergis River, west China

The riparian forests along the Ergis River, west China, composed mainly of Salicaceae species, play an important role in eco-environment protection and sustainable development of local agriculture, stockbreeding, and social economy of the northern desert region of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The study of the influence of floods on the natural riparian forests is imperative for the understanding of the successional process and the acceleration of conservation and restoration of forests. By investigating the relationship between floods and dispersal of seeds, sprouting, natural regeneration, the structure of the forests, and their current distribution, we conclude that: 1) the ripening and dispersal periods of Salicaceae species seeds overlap largely with flood occurrence periods, and the sprouting and natural regeneration of seeds depend greatly on flood events; 2) floods supply soil water and increase groundwater level of riparian land through flood irrigation and horizontal infiltration to maintain the normal growth of the riparian forests; 3) floods have a decisive influence on the structure, composition, and distribution pattern of riparian forests, and any disturbance in the water flow has a profound effect on these characteristics. Given these facts, some management measures for conservation and restoration of the riparian forests are proposed, including the establishment of riparian forest buffer belt, bank stabilization measures, and maintenance of flood protection. __________ Translated from Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 2006, 28(2): 46–51 [译自: 北京林业大学学报]     

Spatial variation of seed rain and seed banks in gaps of karst forest in the Maolan Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province

Based on an investigation on gaps and non-gap stands of the Maolan National Karst Forest Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province, quantitative characteristics and dynamic changes of seed rain and seed banks in gaps were analyzed. The results show that the total amount of seed rain was 117.4 ± 32.6 seeds/m² during the period of observation. The number of immature seeds was 56.3 ± 10.3 seeds/m², that of mature damaged seeds was 15.7 ± 4.7 seeds/m², and the number of mature germinated seeds was 45.4 ± 8.2 seeds/m². It is suggested that the seed number is rich for gap regeneration. Seed rain in gaps has spatial and temporal heterogeneities which deeply affect regeneration patterns of gap plants. Along a gradient from the gap center to a non-gap stand, seed density in the litter layer, the number of species, and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index were gradually reduced, but these indices increased in the soil. The seed density in the gap center was 2415 ± 639 seeds/m², near the gap center was 2218 ± 421 seeds/m² and at the gap border area 1815 ± 311 seeds/m². This shows that plants in gaps have good latent regeneration potential. In both gaps and non-gap stands, the Jaccard similarity index of seed in litter layer was the largest, second largest at 5–10 cm soil depth, and the least at the 0–5 cm soil layer the index. The Jaccard index between the soil seed bank and the present plant community was large in the litter layer, but decreased with soil depth both in gaps and non-gap stands. The results show that soil seed banks are the main source of gap regeneration in the karst forests of Maolan and contribute significantly to gap regeneration. __________ Translated from Acta Botanica Yunnanica, 2007, 29(3): 327–332 [译自: 云南植物研究]     

HOARDING BEHAVIOR OF EURASIAN NUTCRACKER ANDITS ROLE IN THE DISPERSAL OF KOREAN PINE

INTRODUCTIONKoreanpine(Pinuskoraiensis)com-'monlyoccursinmixtUrewithsomehardwoodsPeCiesand,natUrally,becomesold-growth"forestcalledmixedbroad-leaved/Koreanpineforest.ThenatUralforestsmainlydistributedinnortheastChina.TheconesofKoreanpinearelarge,measuringupto2ocminsize.The....,iscalescannotopenuptoletthebig,winglessseedsoutwhentheconesbecomingdry.UndernatUralcondition,theseedsdon'tgerminateuntil2winterslater,buttheseedsinconesusuallybecomerottenowingtofungusorareforagedbysmallrodentsa…     

Comparative study in chemical character and fatty acid compositions of masked civet’s fat and nutria’s oil

The fat production rate in adult healthy masked civet(Paguma lavata) and nutria (Myocaster coypus) oil were measured. The values of iodine, saponification and acid pH, composition of fatty acids of grease were analyzed both chemically and by apparatus. The results showed that acid pH, iodine value, saponification value, and unsaturation point are 1.887 and 0.784, 53.90 and 48.32, 98.80 and 100.23, and 60.05% and 58.85% are respectively for masked civet’s fat and nutria’s oil. Both of masked civet’s fat and nutria’s oil contain a little of Eicosatetraenoic acid (C-20∶4), which is of great significance in nutrition and metabolism for human body. The analysis results indicate that masked civet’s oil is similar to nutria’s oil in iodine value, saponification value and unsaturation point. Both masked civet’s fat and nutria’s oil are steady and have highly nutrition. They can be widely exploited and utilized in health protection and cosmetics made industry. (Responsible Editor: Chai Ruiha)     

Reproductive strategies and seeds behavior ofBetula platyphylla Suk. population

By the methods of morphological anatomy and investigation in the sample fields, the main studies were carried out such as morphological anatomy of reproductive organs, birch population’s reproductive ages, reproductive allotment value and seed behavior. The relationship between birch population and their surroundings was studied. The results showed that birch’s flower organs and its seeds were suitable well for spreading by wind. The seeds by wind can fly far away in a short time. The quantity of seed spreading greatly varied with different communities. Birch’s reproduction age can be changed in different ecological surroundings. The reproductive allotment value of birch was obviously different at different reproductive stages. In the mesic habitat, birch can grow well. The lowest reproductive age of them was 12, average age 15. In most cases the age of branches to bearing fruits was more than 18. The order of reproductive allotment values was as follows: a flowering phase > flower bud phase > fruit phase.     

动物取食和扩散森林植物种实研究进展

动物取食扩散森林植物种实作为森林生态系统中植物和动物联系的-个重要方面, 不仅是联系母株与其子代幼苗的重要桥梁, 也是植物生活史中的-个重要阶段。文中综述了近年来关于动物取食森林植物种实及其与这些植物种子散布、萌发、幼苗生长和种群扩展等方面关系的研究成果。动物在取食和破坏森林植物种实的同时也将这些植物的种子扩散到-个新的生境斑块, 其消化道机械的或化学的作用提高了这些森林植物的种子萌发率和萌发进程, 促进了其早期定居和种群扩大。动物对森林植物的这种作用具有长期性, 形成特定动植物间或多物种间的协同进化。近年来, 森林生态系统受到了严重的干扰和破坏, 可能会因为干扰了森林植物种实的动物散布者而影响森林植物种群的扩展。     

Bird communities and seedling recruitment in restoring seasonally dry forest using the framework species method in Northern Thailand

This study examined the effects of framework trees, planted in 1998, and bird community on the natural recruitment of tree seedling species in a forest restoration experiment designed to test the framework species method of forest restoration established by Chiang Mai University’s Forest Restoration Research Unit (FORRU-CMU). Tree seedlings establishing beneath five framework tree species: Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr., Hovenia dulcis Thunb., Melia toosendan Sieb. & Zucc., Prunus cerasoides D.Don and Spondias axillaries Roxb., were surveyed. Five trees of each species were selected in the 8-year-old trial plots. Birds visiting each tree were observed to determine possible seed dispersal activities. Thirty-six tree seedling species were found beneath the selected trees, of which 11 were wind-dispersed and 25 were animal-dispersed. The population density of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher than the wind-dispersed seedlings beneath all selected framework trees. The sample plots beneath P. cerasoides supported the highest population density of tree seedlings. Forty-nine bird species were recorded visiting the framework trees between July 2006 and June 2007. Non-frugivorous birds were recorded more frequently than the frugivorous birds. The effects of birds on seedling recruitment were different among each of the selected framework tree. Bigger trees, which attracted high number of birds by providing food resources, roosting and nesting sites may increase the seed deposition more than smaller trees with fewer attractants.