Prevalence and intensity of Echinococcus multilocularis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes schrencki) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides albus) in Otaru City, Hokkaido, Japan

A survey was done in an attempt to investigate the epidemiological status of Echinococcus multilocularis in red foxes and raccoon dogs in Otaru city from June to September 1999. Sixty-seven red foxes (Vulpes vulpes schrencki) and 13 raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides albus) were captured, and postmortem examinations were conducted with them. Thirty-eight red foxes (56.7%) and 3 raccoon dogs (23.1%) were found to be infected with E. multilocularis. The total biomass of E. multilocularis in all infected red foxes and raccoon dogs were 2,817,000 and 1,515 worms, respectively. Nine of the infected red foxes harboring more than 100,000 worms accounted for 90.6% of the total biomass. No significant differences in the prevalence were observed between male and female, and juvenile and adult. However, the worm burden was higher in juvenile than in adult foxes. In one of the infected raccoon dogs, mature worms and eggs of E. multilocularis were found in the intestine and fecal sample, respectively. This result suggested that the raccoon dogs are probably playing a small role in the egg contamination of the environment. The validity of coproantigen ELISA for diagnosis of foxes was confirmed by comparing the results of autopsy, egg examination and coproantigen ELISA using rectal fecal samples.     

The use of tetracycline in anthelmintic baits to assess baiting rate and drug efficacy against Echinococcus multilocularis in foxes

Anthelmintic (praziquantel) baiting of wild red foxes against Echinococcus multilocularis infection was studied in a highly epizootic suburban area of Otaru, Hokkaido (the northern island of Japan) during the summer and autumn in the years 1999-2004. Acceptance of baits containing the biomarker tetracycline (TC) was evaluated. The prevalence of E. multilocularis infection in foxes before baiting (1999-2000) was 58% (88/153), whereas in the fourth year of bait distribution year (2004), it decreased to 11% (5/45). Analysis of TC marking in the teeth of foxes showed that 39% (77/195) of those captured after baiting were estimated to have consumed baits in the year of capture. Importantly, more juvenile (56%, 49/87) than adult foxes (26%, 28/108) were marked, indicating efficient baiting of juveniles, which tended to have a higher worm burden of E. multilocularis. Of 77 marked foxes, E. multilocularis and Alaria alata (monitored as the second indicator species of deworming) were not detected in 70 (90%) and 76 (99%) foxes, respectively. The results suggest effective deworming by bait consumption. However, it was also demonstrated that 9% of the marked foxes were infected or re-infected after bait consumption, suggesting high infection pressure and the importance of frequent baiting.     

Efficacy evaluation of epsiprantel (Cestex) against Echinococcus mutilocularis in dogs and cats

Helminth-free dogs and cats were experimentally infected with protoscoleces of Echinococcus multilocularis and used in controlled trials for efficacy evaluation of the cestodicide epsiprantel. In two separate trials each 4 dogs were treated at day 20 post infection (p.i.) with average oral dosages of 5.1 (4.9-5.3) and 5.4 (5.2-5.8) mg/kg body weight (b.w.) epsiprantel, respectively, and necropsied at day 24 p.i. Among each 4 dogs of the two untreated control groups all animals were infected and had high intestinal worm burdens with averages of 33.575 and 100.725 E. multilocularis specimens per animal (individual worm burdens in group Ib 59,500-149,800, group IIb 20,500-43,200); in the two groups of treated dogs the average worm burdens were reduced by 99.6 and 99.9%. Among 8 treated dogs 4 were helminth-free, the other 4 had residual worm burdens (10-70 in 3 dogs, 1480 in 1 dog). In each 5 cats single oral treatments with average doses of 2.7 (2.7-2.8) and 5.5 (5.5-5.5) mg/kg b.w. epsiprantel were 100% effective against E. multilocularis 20 days p.i. and eliminated the worm burdens from all 10 animals. In the untreated group of 5 cats the average worm burden was 2864 per animal (individual worm burdens 20-6830). Side effects of the drug treatment were not observed. The results of the study show that in single therapeutic dosages recommended by the producer (dogs 5.5 mg, cats 2.75 mg/kg b.w.) epsiprantel eliminates E. multilocularis to over 99% or completely, but residual worm burdens may persist in some animals.     

The first finding of Echinococcus multilocularis in dogs in Slovakia: an emerging risk for spreading of infection

Alveolar echinococcosis, caused by the metacestode Echinococcus multilocularis, is a zoonosis of public health significance. Apart from red foxes, other carnivore species can also serve as definitive hosts of this parasite. This study aimed to determine the occurrence of E. multilocularis in dogs in the Slovak Republic and identify risk factors for acquiring the infection. Out of 289 dogs examined, E. multilocularis was detected in eight samples (2.8%). Positive results were observed in shepherd dogs (12.5%), guard dogs (7.1%), hunting dogs (2.4%) and in one dog with unknown usage (2.5%). Catching rodents and feeding with raw viscera were confirmed to be the most important risk factors for E. multilocularis infection. On the contrary, the way of dog use, frequency of going to the rural areas, the age and gender of animals seem not to be risk factors for infection. No significant association was observed between the positivity of dogs coming from high endemic or non-endemic regions. This is the first report of E. multilocularis in dogs in the Slovak Republic that confirms substantial contribution of dogs to the transmission of the tapeworm in this territory and urges the necessity of prophylactic measures for dog owners.     

Evaluation of coproantigen diagnosis for natural Echinococcus multilocularis infection in red foxes.

The validity of a coproantigen ELISA for Echinococcus multilocularis was evaluated by comparison of three diagnostic methods; autopsy, egg examination and the ELISA. Of 71 foxes, 39 were found to be infected with the cestode at autopsy. The overall mean of worm burdens was 3,451, but the number varied (1-34,522). The ELISA could detect 94.9% (37/39) of the worm positives and there were no false-positives. Two false-negatives were infected with 1 and 4 cestodes, whereas 3 cases with similar worm burdens (2, 4 and 6 worms) were diagnosed as positives. This indicates the detection limit of the assay may be equivalent to less than 10 (in the worm burden). On the other hand, egg examination showed low sensitivity (43.6%, 17/39). These results suggest the ELISA has a potential to replace for the conventional methods.     

Hair coat contamination with zoonotic helminth eggs of farm and pet dogs and foxes

Infections of dogs with Toxocara canis and Echinococcus multilocularis pose an infection-risk particularly for contact persons. We examined specimens of hair coat and faeces of 124 farm dogs, 118 household dogs, 49 kennel dogs, 15 puppies from two litters, and 46 red foxes. Microscopically identified eggs of Toxocara or taeniids were further investigated by species-specific PCRs. In farm dogs, eggs of E. multilocularis or T. canis were identified in each 2.4% of faecal samples, eggs of T. cati (gastrointestinal passage) in 7.3%, respectively. Household dogs excreted eggs of T. canis (0.8%) and of T. cati (2.5%). In kennel dogs, eggs of T. canis (4.1%), but not of T. cati were detectable. Coat samples contaminated with eggs of Toxocara spp. were found from farm dogs (5.6%), household dogs (1.7%) and kennel dogs (2.0%). Taeniid eggs were isolated from the coat samples from only two farm dogs (1.6%); a molecular species determination was not achieved. In six intrauterinely infected puppies, Toxocara-eggs were found in 17/38 samples taken within six weeks. No intact Toxocara eggs could be isolated from the coat of nine puppies from a second litter 13 days after deworming. Of the 46 red foxes investigated (dissection and faecal samples) 13 (28.3%) were infected with E. multilocularis and 20 (43.5%) with Toxocara. Eggs of taeniids and Toxocara were found in 13% (in three cases confirmed as E. multilocularis) and 21.7%, respectively, of the coat samples. None of the retrieved Toxocara eggs in the coat samples were embryonated. Thus, an infection of humans through the transmission of E. multilocularis eggs after direct contact with dogs or foxes is conceivable, whereas a corresponding infection risk by Toxocara eggs must be critically challenged.     

Veterinary aspects of alveolar echinococcosis--a zoonosis of public health significance

Human alveolar echinococcosis (AE), caused by the metacestode stage of Echinococcus multilocularis, is a serious zoonosis which caused up to 100% lethality in untreated patients before the 1970s, when modern methods of treatment were not yet established. AE occurs in large areas of the northern hemisphere mostly with low country-wide prevalences, but high prevalences of up to 4% have been reported from small population groups in highly endemic foci, e.g. from China. AE includes many veterinary aspects which are the topic of this review. Recent studies have shown that E. multilocularis has a wider geographic range than previously anticipated. There is evidence for growing populations of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in some areas, for increasing invasion of cities by foxes and also for establishment of the parasite cycle in urban areas. These and other factors may lead to an increased infection risk for humans. Significant progress has been made in the development of sensitive and specific new techniques for the intra vitam and post mortem diagnosis of intestinal E. multilocularis infection in definitive hosts, notably the detection of coproantigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and of copro-DNA by PCR. Both tests can also be used for the identification of E. multilocularis in faecal samples collected in the environment. Recommendations are given for chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis of the intestinal infection in definitive hosts. In recent years, infections with the metacestode stage of E. multilocularis have not only been diagnosed in humans in several regions, including at least eight countries in central Europe, but also in animal species which do not play a role in the transmission cycle (wild and domestic pigs, dogs etc.). From 1987 to 2000 our group in Zurich has diagnosed 10 cases of AE in dogs and 15 in captive monkeys. In 2 dogs, concurrent infections of the intestine and of the liver with adult and larval stages of E. multilocularis, respectively, were observed for the first time. Clinical data are presented, and methods of diagnosis and treatment (surgery, chemotherapy) are described. Furthermore, small liver lesions caused by E. multilocularis were diagnosed in 10% of 90 slaughter pigs, and 2.9% of 522 breeding sows had specific serum antibodies against parasite antigens. In view of the unpredictable epidemiological situation, all possible measures for preventing E. multilocularis infections in humans and in domestic animals should be initiated by the veterinary and health authorities.     

Increase in the prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis infection in red foxes in Lower Saxony.]

Echinococcus multilocularis is a tapeworm having carnivores as final hosts, the red fox in particular, dog and cat less frequent. Its two host life cycle consists of a larval cycle which predominantly takes place in the liver of rodents such as mice but it can also develop in musk rats as intermediate hosts. Man can also be infected and serves as a wrong intermediate host. He develops an alveolar echinococcosis which usually ends lethal without medical treatment. The prevalence of E. multilocularis among 5.365 red foxes in Lower Saxony was monitored from 1991 to 1997. The data were analysed using spatial epidemiological methods. This evaluation is based on a significance test which was applied to the parameters of spatial autoregressive regression models (CAR) fitting to the data of two successive sampling periods from 1991-1994 and 1994-1997. The mean prevalence (spatial median) increased from 6% to 11%. The results of this epidemiological study which was restricted to Lower Saxony support for the first time the earlier reported assumption that the prevalence of foxes infected with E. multilocularis has risen in Europe in the last decade. The reasons for this development are still unknown.     

Environmental hygienic aspects of echinococcosis]

A literature review on the current situation of echinococcosis in Central Europe is given. The only final host for Echinococcus granulosus in this region ist the dog. The infection rate of dogs with E. granulosus in Central Europe is less than 1%. According to meat inspection statistics in Germany less than 0.008% of sheep, pigs and horses carry larval stages of E. granulosus. Parasitologically confirmed is the occurrence of a cattle-dog strain, the cysts of which were found in 0.26% of slaughter cattle. It is not known whether this strain infects also man as does the sheep-dog strain. Cases of cystic echinococcosis (E. granulosus) diagnosed in Central Europe are often imported from mediterranean countries. In Baden-Wurtemberg, the only state where human cases of echinococcosis are recorded, 50-100 cases are diagnosed per year. In areas with endemic E. multilocularis infection also dogs and cats may be infected with the adult worm besides the red fox. Recent investigations have revealed that not only in classical endemic areas (Switzerland, Austria, Baden-Wurtemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate) foxes have infection rates of up to 67% but that E. multilocularis-infection is also wide-spread in Thuringia, Hesse, Northrhine-Westphalia and in the southern parts of Lower Saxony. The most northern infested area seems to be the region of Detmold (infection rate of foxes 9%). The infection rates with alveolar echinococcosis (E. multilocularis) in humans even in endemic areas are low. In Baden-Wurtemberg 140 new cases became known during the past ten years.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Detection of Echinococcus multilocularis in foxes: evaluation of a protocol of the intestinal scraping technique

The intestinal scraping technique (IST) is widely used for the detection of definitive hosts infected with Echinococcus multilocularis. The sensitivity of the method has been questioned in recent years. Several variations of the technique are used that may differ in their performance. We therefore estimated the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the IST protocol used in our lab by examining the small intestines of 210 E. multilocularis-infected foxes and 294 foxes that had tested negative for this parasite. To this end, IST was first performed on 48 and 294 intestines from infected and uninfected foxes respectively, followed by an examination of the entire remaining mucosa of the small intestine to discover any infections with E. multilocularis that had not been detected by IST. The point estimate for diagnostic sensitivity was 100%. Five different classes of infection intensities were formed. The lower limits of the 95% confidence intervals ranged between 76.8% and 92.6% depending on the number of samples analysed per class. When the small intestines of another 162 infected foxes were examined by IST and the results recorded separately for the anterior, middle and posterior third of the small intestine, a strong preference of E. multilocularis for the posterior third was observed. For epidemiological purposes, it may thus be possible to restrict routine investigations to the posterior portion of the small intestine. By contrast, a reduction of the number of slides examined per infected animal may lead to a considerable loss in sensitivity in animals with a low intensity of infection.     

Control of Echinococcus multilocularis in Central Europe-- possibilities and limitations

Human alveolar echinococcosis is a life-threatening parasitic zoonosis which occurs in rare cases in Central Europe. It is caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus multilocularis. In this publication, strategies for the control of parasites of the genus Echinococcus are reviewed and discussed with regard to their applicability to E. multilocularis on the background of the epidemiological situation in Central Europe. First results of field studies are presented in which strategies based on the application of praziquantel-containing baits to foxes have been tried. Requirements concerning the surveillance of control measures are demonstrated and the limitations of the imaginable control strategies discussed.     

Serological (Em2-ELISA) and parasitological examinations of fox populations for Echinococcus multilocularis infections

Serum or body fluid samples of 1,006 foxes were investigated in an ELISA for antibodies against a highly sensitive and specific antigen (Em2-antigen) of Echinococcus multilocularis. Parasitological examinations of the intestines and simultaneous serological examinations were carried out in 505 foxes: A group of 98 blue foxes (Alopex lagopus) from Norwegian fox farms did not contain intestinal stages of E. multilocularis and was clearly sero-negative in Em2-ELISA. On the other hand in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) originating from European areas known to be endemic for E. multilocularis the following average prevalence rates were found: 244 foxes from Southern Germany, E. multilocularis prevalence 55% and sero-prevalence 60%; 139 foxes from Austria, E. multilocularis prevalence 4% and sero-prevalence 12%. Serological identification of individual foxes with or without intestinal E. multilocularis infection was not possible. Only serological (no parasitological) examination in 402 foxes originating from endemic areas in Switzerland resulted in a sero-prevalence rate of 37%. Sero-prevalence was only 6% and 4% in 54 and 26 other foxes, respectively, originating from Swiss and German areas where E. multilocularis has not yet been reported. Negative control Norwegian (farmed) silver foxes (n = 43) were all sero-negative. The specificity of the Em2-ELISA was confirmed by negative Em2-serologies with sera from dogs infected with intestinal and tissue dwelling helminth species (with the exception of two from 24 dogs infected with E. granulosus).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda,Taeniidae) in Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in northern Belgium

The first record of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Taeniidae) in Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in northern Belgium is described. Between 1996 and 1999, 237 dead foxes were examined for the presence of this tapeworm using the intestinal scraping technique. Four foxes (1.7%) were found to be infected with E. multilocularis and showed medium to very high parasitic burdens. Three infected foxes originated from the south of the study area and the fourth animal came from the north of the study area near the border with The Netherlands. These findings are discussed in relation to the high endemicity of E. multilocularis in southern Belgium and to the increased distribution of the Red fox (V. vulpes) in northern Belgium during the last two decades.     

Spatial distribution and genetic diversity of Echinococcus multilocularis in Hungary

Human alveolar echinococcosis, caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis, is the most pathogenic helminthic zoonosis in the temperate and arctic region of Europe. Between November 2008 and February 2009, 840 red fox (Vulpes vulpes) carcasses, were randomly collected from the whole Hungarian territory. The intestinal mucosa from all the foxes was tested by sedimentation and counting technique. E. multilocularis adult worms were detected in foxes of 16 out of the 19 Hungarian counties and in the suburban areas of the capital, Budapest. The prevalence and abundance of infection was significantly (P<0.001) higher in the north-western half (16.2%, CI=14.5-17.9; m ± SE=165.5 ± 112.4) than in the south-eastern half of the country (4.2%, CI=3.2-5.2; m ± SE=3.6 ± 2.1). The highest prevalence (26.6%, CI=22.5-30.8%) and abundance (m ± SE=614.2 ± 469.3) was observed in the Northern Mountain Region bordering Slovakia. The multi-locus microsatellite analysis of 81 worms showed the presence of four out of the five main European profiles. The H profile was the most common profile (55.5%) with nine genotypes, followed by the G (18.5%) with two genotypes, E (13.6%) with one genotype and D (12.4%) with two genotypes. The genetic distance was not statistically correlated with the geographical distance of the samples, supporting the hypothesis that the geographical distance is only a minor factor among those involved in the genetic distribution of this parasite in Europe. These data indicate that Hungary should be considered as a peripheral area of a single European focus, where the dispersal movement of foxes resulted in the spreading of the parasite from one county to another within a time period short enough to avoid a substantial genetic drift.     

Echinococcus multilocularis and Toxocara canis in urban red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Brussels, Belgium

During the last decades, European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have been implicated in the transmission of several viral or parasitic pathogenic agents to domestic animals and humans. In urban areas, risks of zoonoses transmission are likely to increase as a result of a higher rate of intra- and inter-species contacts. Foxes occur on 35% of the Brussels-Capital Region area and local densities reach up to 4 family groups per square kilometre. According to the directive 2003/99/ECC, a first survey for the presence in foxes of Echinococcus multilocularis and Toxocara canis was conducted in Brussels from 2001 to 2004. None of 160 foxes were found to be infected with E. multilocularis and 24 of 134 foxes were found to be infected with T. canis. Considering numbers of examined foxes, the sensitivity and the specificity of tests used for diagnosis, the 95% credibility intervals for the true prevalence of E. multilocularis and T. canis were estimated in a Bayesian framework to be 0 to 1.87% (median value of 0%) and 12.7 to 26% (median value of 18.7%), respectively. For T. canis, a significantly higher risk to be a carrier occurs in cubs and a significantly lower risk in adults.     

Detection of Echinococcus multilocularis in foxes in The Netherlands

Echinococcus multilocularis was demonstrated in 5 out of 272 foxes in The Netherlands close to the border with Germany and Belgium. Besides microscopic examination of mucosal scrapings, two different PCR assays were used based on the detection of E. multilocularis DNA in colon content. Two distinct areas in The Netherlands were positive for E. multilocularis. Two positive foxes were found in the northern province of Groningen and three positive foxes were found in the southern province of Limburg. Both PCR assays detected more positive foxes compared to microscopic examination of the intestinal content. This is the first report of E. multilocularis in foxes occurring in The Netherlands.     

Echinococcus multilocularis in dogs from two French endemic areas: no evidence of infection but hazardous deworming practices

The life cycle of the zoonotic parasite Echinococcus multilocularis is predominantly sylvatic, involving foxes as definitive hosts infected by predation of rodents, the intermediate hosts. The North-Eastern French departments of Meuse and Haute-Sa?ne are highly endemic, with an estimated fox prevalence of 41% and 36% respectively. Although most of the parasites' biomass occurs in foxes, domestic dogs can also be infected, leading to a major risk of human infection due to the close proximity of dogs and owners. In the present study, dog faeces were collected after praziquantel treatment provided by veterinarians. In all, 860 faecal samples were collected throughout Meuse (n=493) and Haute-Sa?ne (n=367). Intestinal helminth eggs were isolated from the faeces using a flotation technique and observed by microscopy. Parasite species were identified in samples positive for taeniid eggs by sequence analysis after PCR amplification. To study the factors associated with infestation, each sample was linked to a questionnaire filled in by the dog owners. Taeniid eggs were observed in seven faecal samples (0.8%) but none of them were positive for E. multilocularis. Thus, the apparent prevalence of E. multilocularis in dog populations is lower than 1.00% for Haute-Sa?ne and lower than 0.75% for Meuse. In Haute-Sa?ne, a high proportion of dogs observed suspected preying on rodents were not dewormed monthly. In endemic areas, these dogs must be considered at risk of transmitting E. multilocularis to humans.     

Reduced egg production of Echinococcus multilocularis in experimentally infected and re-infected red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

Ingestion of eggs of the small fox tapeworm, Echinococcus multilocularis, causes the severe human disease alveolar echinococcosis. Previously, the dynamics of the egg excretion from infected carnivores have been studied only where the host animals have been exposed to a single experimental infection. In nature, foxes are most likely repeatedly infected. To study the effect of repeated exposure, twenty-one foxes were inoculated with a high dose of E. multilocularis protoscoleces three times over a 1-month period. For comparative purposes, three groups of twenty-one foxes were respectively inoculated with low, medium, or high single dose of protoscoleces. For each group, worm number and morphology were analyzed after necropsy of seven foxes at 1, 2, and 4 months after last inoculation. The establishment of intestinal worms was very low in all foxes, and surprisingly, most of the worms did not produce eggs. Although most reproductive structures were detectable, the genital pore and the cirrus pouch often had abnormal enlargements that spread internally, most likely preventing the reproductive function. The reason for this abnormality could not be determined, but the preparation and storage conditions of the inoculated protoscoleces may have contributed to the stunted development. Physical stress of E. multilocularis at the larval stage in rodents may later adversely affect the reproductive success of the adult tapeworm in the carnivore definitive host; as in the present study where a worm establishment in the definitive host was only followed by a neglectable egg production.     

Helminths of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Denmark

An epidemiological study of helminths in 1040 red foxes collected from various localities in Denmark during 1997-2002, revealed 21 helminth species at autopsy, including nine nematode species: Capillaria plica (prevalence 80.5%), Capillaria aerophila (74.1%), Crenosoma vulpis (17.4%), Angiostrongylus vasorum (48.6% from Northern Zealand (endemic area)), Toxocara canis (59.4%), Toxascaris leonina (0.6%), Uncinaria stenocephala (68.6%), Ancylostoma caninum (0.6%), and Trichuris vulpis (0.5%); seven cestodes: Mesocestoides sp. (35.6%), a number of Taeniid species (Taenia pisiformis, T. hydatigena, T. taeniaeformis, T. crassiceps, and unidentified Taenia spp.) (22.8%), and Echinococcus multilocularis (0.3%); four trematodes: Alaria alata (15.4%), Cryptocotyle lingua (23.8%), Pseudamphystomum truncatum (3.6% from Northern Zealand), and Echinochasmus perfoliatus (2.4% from Northern Zealand); one acanthocephalan: Polymorphus sp. (1.2%). Significant difference in prevalence was found for T. canis and A. vasorum according to host sex, and for T. canis, U. stenocephala, Mesocestoides sp., Taenia spp., A. alata, A. vasorum, and Capillaria spp. according to age groups (adult, young or cub). Prevalence and average worm intensity for each helminth species varied considerably according to geographical locality, season, and year. Aggregated distribution was found for several helminth species. The two species E. multilocularis and E. perfoliatus are first records for Denmark.     

Prevalence of zoonotic important parasites in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain

A national necropsy survey of red foxes was carried out across Great Britain to record Echinococcus, Trichinella and Toxoplasma. The survey did not record directly, or indirectly using coproantigen/PCR tests, evidence for the presence of Echinococcus multilocularis in 588 animals, although E. granulosus was suspected in six animals. Parasitological evidence for Trichinella spp. could not be found in 587 fox muscle digests, and a specific PCR test also failed to detect Toxoplasma in a sub-set of 61 random fox tongue biopsies. The upper 95% confidence interval for the above parasites was 0.60% (E. multilocularis), 0.60% (Trichinella spp.) and 5.6% (Toxoplasma). The commonest gut parasites were the hookworm Uncinaria stenocephala (41.3%) and the ascarid Toxocara canis (61.6%). This study also reports the second occurrence of Trichuris vulpis in Great Britain.