Challenges and opportunities to livestock breeding programmes in India

Animal breeding in India has a long and chequered history. High pressure on agricultural land and increasing human population opened a new opportunity for the livestock and poultry sector as a promising food industry. Productivity of livestock in India is low due to less coverage of livestock under structured breeding programmes, inadequate nutrition and its entanglement with several socio‐economic issues. A bottom‐up approach to breeding policy formulation addressing local needs is required with assured flow of investments. Cattle slaughter is banned in India; hence, a legal policy to curb widespread indiscriminate mating is required which may incur substantial financial and infrastructural burdens for castration of stray males and strengthening of cow rehabilitation centres. Genetic evaluation of indigenous cattle with progeny testing (PT) requires substantial financial support, without affecting the already existing PT for exotic cattle breeds used in the local cross‐breeding programmes and PT of new genotypes obtained from crosses of exotic and local breeds of cattle and for purebred buffaloes. Small ruminants need special attention due to their socio‐economic importance in rural and often highly disadvantaged communities and because they are the second most important meat‐producing species after poultry. Genetic improvement of small ruminants should be accompanied by attention to shrinking grazing resources which would require strong political will together with financial support. The outreach of breeding programmes for small ruminants is currently limited; there is also a lack of linkage between the market and producers that discourages farmers from adopting clear breeding objectives like improvement in growth rate, as animals are seldom sold on weight basis. Apart from government agencies, involvement of private sector, non‐government organizations, local co‐operatives, self‐help groups and self‐sustainable community‐based breeding programmes can strengthen market linkages. Strengthening of the existing infrastructure along with technical input and skilled manpower is essential for achieving the breeding objectives.     

Breeding sheep in New Zealand that are less reliant on anthelmintics to maintain health and productivity

Breeding sheep that are less reliant on the use of anthelmintics to maintain acceptable health and productivity is one of several options that may assist farmers to manage the growing anthelmintic-resistance problem in New Zealand and meet consumer demands to minimise drug usage in livestock. Although it has been known for many years that genetic factors contribute to the ability of sheep to cope with roundworm challenge, attempts to selectively breed for such factors have occurred only recently. Two host traits, 'resistance' and 'resilience', are thought to be involved in limiting the deleterious effects of roundworms on the health and productivity of sheep, and the associated need for treatment with anthelmintics. Over the last decade, considerable advances have been made in our understanding of the feasibility and implications of breeding for these traits under practical conditions. The experimental breeding lines developed as part of this research are now proving to be a valuable resource for further work directed at identifying genes and/or genetic markers associated with host resistance and understanding the mechanisms of host immunity to nematode parasites in ruminants. This review provides an up-to-date summary of the results of research in this field, with particular reference to dual-purpose sheep in New Zealand, and describes how this information is being applied in practical breeding programmes.     

Optimal village breeding schemes under smallholder sheep farming systems

Despite challenges in the implementation of livestock genetic improvement programs in developing regions, including centralized nucleus breeding schemes, these programs can contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of smallholder farmers. In this paper, we present a community- or village-based breeding scheme in which breeding activities are carried out by communities of smallholder farmers. We evaluated genetic responses and the rate of inbreeding from alternative village sheep breeding schemes that were based on a survey of existing flock structure and breeding management in a sheep-barley system in Ethiopia. This survey showed that individual flock sizes were small, and that the majority of farmers practiced mixed grazing and uncontrolled mating of their flocks in communal grazing lands within villages. Here we evaluated within-village schemes (selection across flocks within a village) and across-village schemes (selection across villages) at different intensities of ram selection (i.e. proportions of rams selected, P). Our results showed that under within-village schemes, intensity of selection could not be increased (i.e. P could not be decreased below 0.149) when the rate of inbreeding was constrained to an acceptable level of 0.01, resulting in low genetic gain. The most optimal scheme was found to be across-village selection with at least three villages cooperating and P = 0.05. Our results also indicated that genetic gain from village breeding schemes with mass selection and BLUP selection is comparable. Village breeding schemes can make a significant contribution to the genetic improvement of livestock in Ethiopia and other developing countries.     

Breeding programmes for smallholder sheep farming systems: II. Optimization of cooperative village breeding schemes

A simulation study was conducted to optimize a cooperative village‐based sheep breeding scheme for Menz sheep of Ethiopia. Genetic gains and profits were estimated under nine levels of farmers' participation and three scenarios of controlled breeding achieved in the breeding programme, as well as under three cooperative flock sizes, ewe to ram mating ratios and durations of ram use for breeding. Under fully controlled breeding, that is, when there is no gene flow between participating (P) and non‐participating (NP) flocks, profits ranged from Birr 36.9 at 90% of participation to Birr 21.3 at 10% of participation. However, genetic progress was not affected adversely. When there was gene flow from the NP to P flocks, profits declined from Birr 28.6 to Birr ?3.7 as participation declined from 90 to 10%. Under the two‐way gene flow model (i.e. when P and NP flocks are herded mixed in communal grazing areas), NP flocks benefited from the genetic gain achieved in the P flocks, but the benefits declined sharply when participation declined beyond 60%. Our results indicate that a cooperative breeding group can be established with as low as 600 breeding ewes mated at a ratio of 45 ewes to one ram, and the rams being used for breeding for a period of two years. This study showed that farmer cooperation is crucial to effect genetic improvement under smallholder low‐input sheep farming systems.     

Status of dairy cow management and fertility in smallholder farms in Malawi

A review of the smallholder dairy production in Malawi was conducted using livestock annual reports and other literature that was supplemented with primary data from a baseline survey conducted in December 2009. Smallholder dairy farming in Malawi operates with support from institutions that facilitate access to initial stock and dairy production technologies. Most farmers (94%) keep the animals in pens where feed is provided throughout the year. Results indicated unsatisfactory feeding, housing and health management practices, which negatively impact cow fertility. Dairy population trends suggest low replacement rates, which could be associated to low cow fertility and inadequate management skills. There are challenges related to access to breeding and health services, which further contribute to low productivity. Low fertility is evidenced by low calving rates (22–61%) and long calving interval (405–549 days). Existence of programmes on farmer capacity building provides an opportunity for improved management skills and cow productivity. It is concluded that dairy cow management and fertility have challenges and opportunities that are influenced by the extent to which farmers have access to important services such as extension, health, breeding and finance.     

A global strategy of using molecular genetic information to improve genetics in livestock

Traditional breeding programmes have largely contributed to disseminate the benefits of several quantitative traits in livestock. In developing countries such as Indonesia where animal population scattered throughout the country, it is difficult to invest for molecular research. On the other side, yet, it is worthy asset for breeding purposes. Based on theory and evidence, it has been proved that those scattered population evolved different genetic adaptations in response to a given natural pressure selection. A global strategy can be applied to the use of molecular genetic information for identification of economically important value. The use of genetic markers or more effective of marker-assisted selection (MAS) for desired important traits would be more valuable and useful and even more efficient in important trait selection of superior livestock. DNA marker technology would be very useful when applied for quantitative trait identification. Marker-assisted selection can be used for enhancing conventional breeding and works best for the traits with low heritability such as in reproductive traits and disease resistance. Application of conventional breeding for lower heredity traits would not be efficient because of waiting longer for generation interval, expensive in measurements, more population and more employees needed. Study of quantitative trait loci mapping is early investment to improve genetic merit. It can be performed once but can be used for exploring many genetic traits with economically important values. An effective option is biotechnology application in livestock for the development of genetic varieties such as stress tolerance, growth and carcass traits. Application of biotechnology approaches will enable improvement in productivity, reduction in costs, enrichment of milk compositions and extension of shelf life products.     

Genetic Engineering Approaches to Pig Production*

Modern biotechnology promises a number of new applications in animal breeding and production. Although conventional pig breeding has achieved a high level of efficiency and productivity numerous problems have been encountered with animal health and the loss of meat quality. Selection based on phenotypic performance data of individual animals does not take into account the importance of specific genes and their relevance within a complex regulatory system. In most cases it is therefore difficult to trace back the genetic origins of clinically important disorders. The application of genetic engineering techniques in pig production will facilitate diagnosis, improvement of productivity, and animal health by allowing direct genetic manipulation. Attention must be focussed on the physical and genetic analysis of the procine genome. The isolation and characterisation of genes, DNA-markers, polymorphic DNA-fragments, and their chromosomal assignment will be important prerequisites and tools for the elucidation of genetic disorders. Especially the detection of heterozygous carriers of recessive disorders and their elimination from the breeding stock will increase selection accuracy and decrease the generation intervals. But also the rapid and simple detection of infectious diseases, which is sometimes difficult if not impossible at present, will improve animal health and welfare. Although the production of transgenic animals either by DNA-microinjection into zygotes or the use of embryonal stem cells manipulated in vitro is less straightforward than DNA-based diagnosis it will play an important role in the direct manipulation of the porcine genome and genes. Breeding programmes including the use of transgenic livestock have already been developed. There is no doubt that genetic engineering has reached a degree of practical feasibility, allowing it to play an important role in pig breeding in particular and animal production in general.     

Defining a breeding objective for Nile tilapia that takes into account the diversity of smallholder production systems

In general, livestock and fish farming systems in developing countries tend to be highly diverse in terms of agro‐ecological conditions and market orientation. There are no studies that have investigated if and how this diversity translates to varying preferences for breeding objective traits. This is particularly important for breeding programmes that are organized on a national level (e.g. government‐supported nucleus breeding programmes). The aim of this study was to investigate whether Nile tilapia farmers with diverse production systems and economic constraints have different preferences for breeding objective traits. The second objective was to derive a consensus breeding goal, using weighted goal programming that could be used for a national breeding programme for Nile tilapia. A survey was conducted among 100 smallholder Nile tilapia farmers in Kenya to obtain preference values for traits of economic importance, by using multiple pairwise comparisons. Individual and group preference values were estimated using analytical hierarchy process. Low‐income farmers preferred harvest weight, while medium‐ and high‐income farmers preferred growth rate and survival. Grouping farmers according to market objective (fingerling production or fattening) showed that fingerling producers preferred growth rate and survival, while fattening farmers preferred harvest weight, height and thickness. Weighted goal programming was used to obtain consensus preference values, and these were used to derive desired gains for a breeding goal of a national breeding programme that takes into account the diversity of smallholder production systems.     

Evaluation of the efficiency of alternative two-tier nucleus breeding systems designed to improve meat sheep in Kenya

A deterministic approach was used to genetically and economically evaluate the efficiency of five two‐tier nucleus breeding systems for meat sheep in Kenya. The nucleus breeding systems differed in terms of whether the system was closed or open, in the type of animals that were involved in the movement of genetic superiority and in the number of selection pathways in each system. These systems were compared under four alternative breeding objectives based on monetary genetic gain and profit per ewe. The first objective simulated a situation where the flock size cannot be increased due to non‐feed related constraints (FLOCK). The second specifically assumed that the flock size is restricted due to limited amount of feed resources (FEED). The third and fourth objectives assumed that sheep performed only tangible roles (TR) and both tangible and intangible roles (IR) in the production system respectively. Monetary genetic gains were highest for all objectives in an open nucleus system with a certain proportion of commercial‐born ewes being introduced in the nucleus while at the same time utilizing young rams from the nucleus to breed sires and dams for the nucleus and commercial sector (ONyre). Utilizing young rams in a closed nucleus system for the dissemination of superior genes resulted in higher annual monetary genetic gain than utilization of old rams. Profit per ewe was significantly higher for FLOCK and IR in ONyre. In a closed system that allowed for downward movement of dams from the nucleus to the commercial sector to breed sires and dams, profit per ewe was highest for FEED and TR. The success of a nucleus breeding system should also focus on the profitability and logistics of establishing it. The implication of these results on the choice of two‐tier nucleus breeding systems for the improvement of meat sheep is discussed.     

Smallholders’ perceptions of goat farming in southern Benin and opportunities for improvement

To be successful, initiatives to improve smallholder’s goat production should directly address the needs and objectives of the keepers while promoting rational use of local genetic resources. This paper identifies the objectives, constraints and needs of goat farmers in southern Benin and discusses their relevance to the development of improvement programmes. Between November and December 2005, structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and participant observation were used to collect information from 38 goat farmers in two selected locations. Goats were kept mainly for sale whenever cash was needed. Traits related to reproduction, to behaviour, to health and to meat production were considered equally important and were ranked very highly by goat keepers. Increased net income per flock through increased number of marketable animals is the derived breeding objective from the trait analysis. Disease outbreaks resulting in high mortality, poor housing, and feed shortages were, in descending order, the most important problems. It was concluded that the development of initiatives to improve management practices is an overriding priority. It will lead to increases in productivity in the short term and foster farmers’ participation in the development of long-term improvement strategies, which should include selection and controlled mating.     

Leptospirosis as the most frequent infectious disease impairing productivity in small ruminants in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil

Despite the importance of small ruminants breeding in developing countries, milk/meat productivity remains unsatisfactory. Infectious diseases, such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, and small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs), contribute to this scenario. The objective of the present study was to determine the role of each of these diseases in the productivity of small ruminants breeding in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In goats, 343 samples were tested for leptospirosis, 560 for Brucella abortus, and 506 for caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE), whereas in sheep, 308 samples were tested for leptospirosis, 319 for B. abortus, 374 for Brucella ovis, and 278 for Maedi-Visna (MV). Regarding leptospirosis, 25.9% of goats and 47.4% sheep were seroreactive, with serovar Hardjo the most prevalent in both species. Anti-B. abortus agglutinins were found in 0.7% of all samples, exclusively in goats. In relation to SRLVs, 8.6% of goats and 3.2% of sheep samples were positive for CAE and MV, respectively. Leptospirosis was the major infectious problem in the small ruminants sampled and may contribute to impaired productivity of these animals.     

Community-based alternative breeding plans for indigenous sheep breeds in four agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia

Based on the results of participatory approaches to define traits in the breeding objectives, four scenarios of ram selection and ram use were compared via deterministic modelling of breeding plans for community-based sheep breeding programmes in four diverse agro-ecological regions of Ethiopia. The regions (and production systems) were Afar (pastoral/agro-pastoral), Bonga and Horro (both mixed crop-livestock) and Menz (sheep-barley). The schemes or scenarios differed in terms of selection intensity and duration of ram use. The predicted genetic gains per year in yearling weight (kilograms) were comparable across the schemes but differed among the breeds and ranged from 0.399 to 0.440 in Afar, 0.813 to 0.894 in Bonga, 0.850 to 0.940 in Horro, and 0.616 to 0.699 in Menz. The genetic gains per year in number of lambs born per ewe bred ranged from 0.009 to 0.010 in both Bonga and Horro. The predicted genetic gain in the proportion of lambs weaned per ewe joined was nearly comparable in all breeds ranging from 0.008 to 0.011. The genetic gain per year in milk yield of Afar breed was in the order of 0.018 to 0.020 kg, while the genetic gain per generation for greasy fleece weight (kg) ranged from 0.016 to 0.024 in Menz. Generally, strong selection and shorter duration of ram use for breeding were the preferred options. The expected genetic gains are satisfactory but largely rely on accurate and continuous pedigree and performance recording.     

Ovine helminthosis, a major health constraint to productivity of sheep in Ethiopia

Small ruminants represent an important component of the Ethiopian livestock production system, providing 12% of the value of livestock products consumed at the farm level and 48% of the cash income generated. Ethiopia is second in Africa and sixth in the world in terms of sheep population. The country has, however, benefited little from this enormous resource owing to a multitude of problems, disease being the most important. Disease alone accounts for mortalities of 30% in lambs and 20% in adults. Productivity losses attributable to helminth parasites are often substantial. A loss of US $ 81.8 million is reported annually due to helminth parasites. In a country confronted with challenges of an ever-rising human population and food shortage, such enormous losses caused by helminth parasites, 'the silent predators', are intolerable. Therefore, helminth control should receive special attention in poverty reduction strategies through improved productivity of livestock if the present and future challenges of food shortage are to be addressed. Productivity loss due to helminth infections can be substantially reduced through implementation of effective disease control strategies, which require an understanding of the epidemiology and ecology of parasites and parasitic infections under local conditions. This paper reviews extensive evidence demonstrating that helminthosis is a major constraint to productivity of sheep in Ethiopia. It also discusses epidemiology and ecology of major helminth parasites in the country and suggests strategies for improved control in various agro-ecological zones and production systems.     

Genetic diversity and matrilineal genetic origin of fat-rumped sheep in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is home to a diverse gene pool of indigenous sheep populations. Therefore, a better understanding of genetic variation holds the key to future utilization through conservation. Three of these breeds, Afar, Blackhead Somali, and Hararghe Highland, are found in eastern Ethiopia where they contribute significantly to the livelihood of most pastoralist, agro-pastoralist, and smallholder farmers. These indigenous sheep are recognized on the basis of morphotype and their genetic distinction remains unknown. Here, to assess genetic variation, and matrilineal genetic origin and relationship of fat-rumed sheep found in eastern Ethiopia, 300 individuals from the three breeds were genotyped for 22 microsatellite markers and sequenced for the mitochondrial DNA displacement loop (mtDNA d-loop) region. The overall H_O and H_E were 0.57 and 0.75, respectively. Differentiation statistics revealed that a high proportion (97%) of the total genetic variation was explained by differences between individuals within populations. Genotype assignment independent of the population of origin showed K?=?2 to be the optimum number of genetic backgrounds present in the dataset. This result was further confirmed by mtDNA D-loop sequences comparison in which the matrilineal genetic origin of eastern Ethiopia sheep is from two haplotype groups (types A and B) among the five haplotypes globally observed. Taken together, our findings suggest that the sheep populations from three breeds originated from two ancestral genetic backgrounds that may have diverged prior to their introduction to Ethiopia. However, to obtain a complete picture of the evolutionary dynamics of Ethiopian indigenous sheep, more samples and populations from within and outside of the country will need to be analyzed.

     

Selective breeding in fish and conservation of genetic resources for aquaculture

To satisfy increasing demands for fish as food, progress must occur towards greater aquaculture productivity whilst retaining the wild and farmed genetic resources that underpin global fish production. We review the main selection methods that have been developed for genetic improvement in aquaculture, and discuss their virtues and shortcomings. Examples of the application of mass, cohort, within family, and combined between-family and within-family selection are given. In addition, we review the manner in which fish genetic resources can be lost at the intra-specific, species and ecosystem levels and discuss options to best prevent this. We illustrate that fundamental principles of genetic management are common in the implementation of both selective breeding and conservation programmes, and should be emphasized in capacity development efforts. We highlight the value of applied genetics approaches for increasing aquaculture productivity and the conservation of fish genetic resources.     

Perceptions of households on purpose of keeping,trait preference,and production constraints for selected goat types in Ethiopia

A study was carried out to understand the needs and perception of goat keepers in selected areas of Ethiopia in order to identify the breeding objectives, traits of preference, and production constraints that may be required in designing improvement programs. The study was conducted in three districts (Bati, Meta, and Kebri-Beyah) representing the lowland crop–livestock (LLCL), highland cereal–livestock (HLCL), and pastoral/agropastoral (P/AP) systems, respectively. The study targeted the three goat types (Bati, Hararghe Highland, and Short-eared Somali) found in Ethiopia. Households in all systems considered meat production, milk production, and income generation as major purpose of keeping goats. However, those in the low rainfall and arid environments of P/AP systems gave high ranking to adaptability to harsh environments and also to building social and religious values. In LLCL and HLCL systems, goat skin and manure were more valued than in P/AP systems. Principally, in P/AP systems, the awareness of households to skin utilization and marketing was very low. Despite diverse multiple breeding objectives identified, household breeding practices were affected by constraints related to disease prevalence, feed shortage and water scarcity, and lack of awareness on skin management, utilization, and marketing. Thus, designing and implementing of sustainable goat improvement programs is an overriding priority and should take into account the breeding objectives and knowledge of goat keepers in all production systems. Along with the breed improvement, a strategy should also be devised to enhance the utilization and marketing of goat skin at all levels of production.     

Status and prospects for livestock production in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Some 16 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product of the Lao PDR arises from the livestock sector. Almost all output - live animals and products - is from traditional small scale production and about 90 per cent of all households in the country keep one or more species of livestock. Industrial or large scale production is of very minor importance even for pigs and poultry. Considerable international assistance has been provided for livestock development, initially from the Socialist states that were of the same political persuasion as Lao PDR and more recently from multilateral and bilateral development assistance agencies. In general this assistance has not conferred lasting benefits on the sector in part due to the failure of the Lao Government to provide continuing support commensurate with the sector’s contribution to the national economy. Buffalo (1.1 million head in 2004) and cattle (1.3 million head) are the main ruminant species with goats and sheep (140 000 head) occupying a very minor position. Both pigs (1.7 million) and poultry (19.6 million) are major contributors to the household and national economies. Buffalo are now mainly meat producers, their former draught and transport roles having been taken over by mechanical equipment. Cattle, also once used for draught, are almost exclusively producers of beef. Pigs and poultry produce meat and poultry provide eggs. Lao indigenous livestock are mainly kept in low input systems, thus output is also low. Nothing is known of the genetic potential of the indigenous stock which are the victims of poor management, inadequate nutrition and minimal health care. There is strong and rising demand for products of animal origin within the country and in the greater Southeast Asia and East Asia regions. Given suitable and appropriate support the Lao livestock sector would be in a strong position to contribute to supplying this demand.     

Genotyping strategies of selection candidates in livestock breeding programmes

Benefits of genomic selection (GS) in livestock breeding operations are well known particularly where traits are sex‐limited, hard to measure, have a low heritability and/or measured later in life. Sheep and beef breeders have a higher cost:benefit ratio for GS compared to dairy. Therefore, strategies for genotyping selection candidates should be explored to maximize the economic benefit of GS. The aim of the paper was to investigate, via simulation, the additional genetic gain achieved by selecting proportions of male selection candidates to be genotyped via truncation selection. A two‐trait selection index was used that contained an easy and early‐in‐life measurement (such as post‐weaning weight) as well as a hard‐to‐measure trait (such as intra‐muscular fat). We also evaluated the optimal proportion of female selection candidates to be genotyped in breeding programmes using natural mating and/or artificial insemination (NatAI), multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) or juvenile in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (JIVET). The final aim of the project was to investigate the total dollars spent to increase the genetic merit by one genetic standard deviation (SD) using GS and/or reproductive technologies. For NatAI and MOET breeding programmes, females were selected to have progeny by 2 years of age, while 1‐month‐old females were required for JIVET. Genomic testing the top 20% of male selection candidates achieved 80% of the maximum benefit from GS when selection of male candidates prior to genomic testing had an accuracy of 0.36, while 54% needed to be tested to get the same benefit when the prior selection accuracy was 0.11. To achieve 80% of the maximum benefit in female, selection required 66%, 47% and 56% of female selection candidates to be genotyped in NatAI, MOET and JIVET breeding programmes, respectively. While JIVET and MOET breeding programmes achieved the highest annual genetic gain, genotyping male selection candidates provides the most economical way to increase rates of genetic gain facilitated by genomic testing.     

Banteng and Bali cattle in Indonesia: status and forecasts

Bali cattle still represents 27% of the total cattle population in Indonesia, and it is considered the pillar breed for small farmers. Moreover, it is a breed of evolutionary importance regarding its direct ancestry from Banteng. However, there is a need for the establishment of a rational system for the evaluation of breeding soundness for indigenous Bali bulls to be used as sires for artificial insemination breeding programmes. Moreover, there is a need for cryobanking of well-identified genetic resources pertaining their use in evolutionary research and application as essential germplasm in breeding programmes.     

Assessing the diversity of preferences of suburban smallholder sheep keepers for breeding rams in Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso

Urbanisation in developing countries entails deep changes in the livestock sector and the management of animal genetic resources (AnGR). Sheep breeding around Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) illustrates these changes and the need to coordinate genetic improvement in general and the use of crossbreeding in particular. For this, it is important to understand breeders’ choices and improvement strategy, to accompany them within a national plan for AnGR management. In a context of missing market for breeding rams, a stated choice experiment was conducted with 137 farmers, together with a characterisation of herd management practices. This survey analyses farmers’ preferences for breeding rams, estimating their willingness to pay (WTP) for different traits (attributes). Their practices were characterised by a high reliance on natural pastures (82% of farmers) and a minority of crossbreeding (23%). The highest WTP was observed for disease resistance. However, the subgroup of farmers practicing crossbreeding showed a tolerance to high susceptibility. A strong preference for the white colour was revealed. Although significant, the influence of sheep body size on decision-making showed a lesser importance, again with a distinct behaviour in the subgroup practicing crossbreeding. These results illustrate the need to take account of the diversity of goals and preferences among smallholder sheep keepers to gain their adhesion to a coordinated genetic improvement framework.