Protecting young workers in agriculture: participation in tractor certification training

Tractor-related injuries among youth are an important public health problem. The major objectives of this study were to (1) provide a rigorous estimate of the number of youth operating tractors in Ohio and (2) assess the extent to which these youth are participating in federally mandated tractor safety training. A self-administered questionnaire was completed by approximately 4,000 students ages 14 or 15 years who were enrolled in a stratified cluster sample of 99 Ohio schools. Almost one-third of the youth (30%) reported having operated tractors, with 19% having operated a tractor on a farm not owned by a parent or guardian. More than half of the youth (52%) reported having operated a tractor and/or other hazardous machinery, with 25% having operated the machinery on a farm not owned or operated by a parent or guardian. Extrapolating from 4-H records and Ohio census data, fewer than 1% of the youth who are operating tractors or other hazardous machinery have participated in tractor certification training. Increasing participation in mandated training may be an important step in protecting the health of our nation's young agricultural workers.     

Seatbelt use during tractor overturns

In 2002, the Kentucky Farm Tractor Overturn Survey was administered, in which 6,063 randomly selected farm operators responded to questions that addressed the presence and use of seatbelts in the event of a tractor overturn. Data were analyzed to determine the proportion of seatbelt presence and use on tractors that overturned differentiated by whether they were equipped or not equipped with a rollover protective structure (ROPS). In 537 overturns reported for which the ROPS status was known, 92 involved ROPS-equipped tractors, of which 60 had a functioning seatbelt, and 19 operators of these tractors used the seatbelt that was present during the overturn. However, of the 445 overturns of non-ROPS tractors, eight had a functioning seatbelt, and three of these operators wore the seatbelt. Two of the three operators that wore seatbelts on non-ROPS tractors suffered a permanent disability. In contrast, of the 19 operators who wore a seatbelt on ROPS-equipped tractors, 18 experienced no or minor injuries, and one required outpatient care. Seatbelts are known to save lives but are a secondary safety device to ROPS, for ROPS alone saves lives and is a necessary pre-condition for seatbelt presence and use.     

Farmers' perceptions and concerns: the risks of driving farm vehicles on rural roadways in North Carolina

This study focuses on farmers' perceptions of roadway safety and reviews specific and pertinent North Carolina rural road crash data to evaluate their perceptions and concerns. A survey was mailed to 1,357 prospective participants throughout North Carolina. Of these, 656 (48.3%) North Carolina farmers completed and returned the survey. The study revealed that while the majority of respondents took a number of specific safety measures to ensure their safety while driving their tractor on rural roads, most believed that driving their tractor on rural roads was more dangerous than it was five years ago. Few respondents believed that laws governing tractors on rural roads are well known by urban residents. While a majority of the respondents would support a law to mandate the use of a slow-moving vehicle (SMV) emblem on the back of slow-moving farm equipment, a majority also believed that a more effective way to mitigate potential crashes would be to ensure that all farm vehicles had blinking or flashing lights, that diamond-shaped caution signs depicting a tractor were posted on roadways with frequent tractor traffic, and that roadway shoulders were created or widened on roads with heavy farm traffic so that tractors could move off the roadway. Only 22% of respondents felt safe driving their tractor on rural roadways in North Carolina. Most respondents felt that the biggest problem with roadway safety was the lack of respect and increased speed of other drivers. Recent data indicate that in crashes involving farm vehicles, citations were issued to 34% of the non-farm vehicle operators and 24% to farm vehicle operators. For those driving non-farm vehicle who were deemed at fault, 66% were cited for failure to reduce speed. For those driving farm vehicles, the most frequent citation involved the lack of safe movement.     

Tractor overturn concerns in Iowa: perspectives from the Keokuk county rural health study

Agriculture remains one of the most hazardous industries in the U.S., with tractor overturns producing the greatest number of agricultural machinery-related fatalities. Rollover protective structures (ROPS) and seatbelts effectively reduce tractor overturn deaths. However, a large proportion of tractors in use in American agriculture are older tractors without ROPS and seatbelts. This article describes the tractor-related responses from participants in a population-based study conducted in Keokuk County, Iowa. This study was designed to measure rural and agricultural adverse health and injury outcomes and their respective risk factors. Questionnaires were partially developed from well-documented national surveys. Questions about agricultural machinery use, presence of safety equipment on the machinery, work practices, and attitudes about farm safety were included. Study participants on farms who owned tractors had an average of 3.1 tractors with an average age of 27 years. Only 39% of the 665 tractors had ROPS. Tractor age was associated with the presence of ROPS; 84% of tractors manufactured after 1984 were ROPS-equipped, whereas only 3% of tractors manufactured before 1960 were ROPS-equipped. ROPS-equipped tractors were significantly more common on larger farms and households with higher income. Only 4% of the farmers reported that their tractors had seatbelts and they wore them when operating their tractors. The results of this study support the findings of other studies, which indicate that many older tractors without ROPS and seatbelts remain in use in American agriculture. Until a dramatic reduction in the number of tractors in the U.S. operated without ROPS and seatbelts is achieved, the annual incidence of 120 to 130 deaths associated with tractor overturns will persist.     

悬挂农具对电液悬挂系统拖拉机振动的影响

悬挂农具设备的拖拉机在行驶过程中的振动会加剧,有时甚至产生很大的俯仰运动。为了研究悬挂农具的存在对拖拉机振动特性的影响,该文在对拖拉机进行运动学和动力学分析的同时,首次详细分析了悬挂机构的运动及受力情况,从而建立了带有悬挂农具的大功率拖拉机整机振动数学模型;用Matlab仿真了拖拉机受到条形水泥障碍激励时的振动情况。研究表明:农具的存在使拖拉机前轮动载系数由O.26增大到0.55;空载拖拉机垂直振动频率为3 Hz,带农具的拖拉机垂直振动频率为2.5 Hz;农具的存在使得拖拉机的俯仰振动显著增加,频率为4.8 Hz;由于悬挂系统的运动与拖拉机机体振动的非线性耦合,一定条件下会表现出频率为10~15 Hz的第3振型的振动;农具的振动使得电液悬挂系统下拉杆铰接点处的力发生相应变化,其垂直分量的大小与农具质心垂直加速度之间存在较好的线性关系。仿真结果与试验结果相吻合,验证了所建数学模型的正确性。所得到的上述结论为拖拉机主动减振控制提供了理论依据。     

考虑无形磨损的拖拉机残值系数预测模型

针对当前随着农机设备更新速度加快,无形磨损对农机折旧影响加重的问题,该文在传统拖拉机残值系数预测模型的基础上引入无形磨损系数,构建了考虑无形磨损的拖拉机残值系数预测模型。以来自于农机服务中心农机及农具拍卖结果的25台拖拉机拍卖数据为研究样本,以机龄、年平均工作时长、无形磨损系数为变量参数,分析其价值变化规律;同时,为了进一步综合对比改进模型与原模型的残值系数预测精度,引入基于几何学的"弗雷歇距离"度量法。结果表明,改进模型与原模型相比,预测偏差较小,预测精度大幅度提高,达到24.9%及以上,能够显著地提高拖拉机残值预测准确度,该研究为折旧成本的计算和农机设备的更新决策提供了科学、准确的决策依据。     

Projected incidence and cost of tractor overturn-related injuries in the United States

In 2004, the Agricultural Safety and Health Centers, supported by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, launched an initiative to conduct research on the consequences of and approaches to control of agricultural tractor-related injuries. The most significant cause of fatal injuries is associated with tractor overturns, and a recognized intervention to control these injuries is equipping the tractor with a rollover protective structure (ROPS). The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of tractor-related fatal and nonfatal injuries and their social costs. Based upon the annual average incidence of 125 tractor-overturn-related fatalities in the U.S. for the period 1992 to 2002, an analysis was conducted of injuries over the 25-year period 1997 to 2021. Using the number of fatalities as an index value, the analysis found that in 1997, there were a total of 2,412 tractor overturns. These overturns were associated with 125 deaths and 573 nonfatal injuries requiring at least outpatient treatment. Compared to ROPS-equipped tractors, 123 (98.6%) deaths and 543 (95%) of nonfatal injuries were associated with non-ROPS tractor overturns. The undiscounted social cost of these injuries totaled $1.5 billion in 2006 dollars for the 25-year period when using cost factors for the agricultural population. When discounted at 3%, this total was $1.1 billion, and when discounted at 5%, it was $0.9 billion. In an alternative analysis, when using cost factors for all occupations including agriculture, the undiscounted social cost totaled $2.9 billion, $2.1 billion when discounted at 3%, and $1.7 billion discounted at 5% for the 25-year period. Non-ROPS tractors as compared to ROPS-equipped tractors account for at least 97% of the costs, no matter the discount rate or cost factors used.     

Agricultural injuries in Central India: nature,magnitude, and economic impact

A study was carried out in Madhya Pradesh (Central India) to collect data on injury-causing agricultural incidents during the period 1995-1999. The overall incidence rate was 1.25/1000 workers/year. About 9.2% of the incidents were fatal, and most of the fatal incidents were due to tractors and snakebites (42.9% each). About 77.6% of all incidents were due to farm machinery, 11.8% were due to hand tools, and the remaining 10.6% were due to other sources like snakes, wells, etc. Data on 1,911 incidents reported in 10 leading newspapers published during the five-year period (1995-1999) from different regions of the state were also collected and analyzed, which indicated that only major or roadside agricultural incidents were reported in newspapers. Based on the survey data, it was estimated that in the year 2000 there would have been about 17,480 agricultural incidents in Madhya Pradesh, causing death to about 2,050 workers and injuries to about 16,770 workers, including amputations of limbs, burns, cuts, etc. Total monetary loss due to agricultural injuries in the state of Madhya Pradesh has been estimated as US $27 million/year.     

Rollover protection on New York tractors and farmers' readiness for change

Tractor overturns contribute significantly to fatalities in New York State agriculture. On-site inspections a decade ago indicated that approximately 60% of tractors were without effective rollover protection. Our objectives were: to describe the current prevalence and distribution of rollover protective structures (ROPS) on New York farm tractors, to identify characteristics associated with the absence of ROPS, to explore segmenting the New York farm community on readiness for ROPS retrofitting, and to identify demographic characteristics that might assist in this segmenting. A random selection of 644 livestock, dairy, fruit, cash crop, vegetable, and organic farms were contacted for a telephone survey. Of 562 farms (87%) participating, 102 (18.1%) had all tractors equipped with ROPS and 138 (24.6%) had none. A disproportionate number of livestock, cash crop, and organic operations had no ROPS. Rates of ROPS-equipped tractors correlated directly with farm size and annual hours of tractor operation. Older farmers had a lower proportion of ROPS tractors. The presence of a child operator did not affect the proportion of ROPS tractors. After weighting the sample, the total number of non-ROPS tractors in New York is estimated at more than 80,000. In addition to providing key farm demographics, the survey enabled placement of farmers on a "stage of change" continuum related to readiness for retrofitting. Three-quarters of New York farmers are in the "precontemplation" stage of change relative to ROPS retrofitting, and this varies little by size of operation, age of farmer, or the presence of child tractor operators. Stage of change may relate to hours of tractor operation (p = 0.05) and does relate to commodity (p = 0.003) due primarily to the higher proportion of crop farmers in the earliest stage of change. The goal of retrofitting all New York farm tractors with ROPS appears nearly as daunting as it did a decade ago.     

Fatal injuries in Finnish agriculture, 1988-2000

Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries in Finland. The aim of this study was to describe and analyze fatal farm injuries in Finland in 1988 to 2000. The information regarding farm-related fatalities was collected by the Kuopio Regional Institute of Occupational Health. The material of this study consisted of all fatal injuries that occurred on a farm or away from a farm in the course of agricultural work. A total of 217 farm-related fatalities occurred in Finland between 1988 and 2000. Of these, 120 were tractor-related, and 97 were other fatal farm injuries. Most of the injuries involved middle-aged or older male farmers. The most typical fatalities with tractors were tractor overturns during driving on a road or working in a field. Other fatal farm incidents occurred mainly in construction work, animal husbandry, or forest work. Elderly farmers and children proved to be risk groups for fatal injuries.     

Safe tractor access platforms: from guidance material to implementation

This article reports on the implementation of published guidelines for retrofitting tractors with safe access platforms, which were developed to reduce the risk of serious injuries and deaths associated with mounting and dismounting. Farmer interviews and engineering-based inspections of ten retrofitted tractors were conducted to gather information regarding benefits and disadvantages of the retrofitting and to assess the construction of the platforms. A scoring system was developed for platform retrofitting, and weighted scores between zero and ten were calculated for tractor access before and after retrofitting. Access was improved on all tractors, although to varying degrees. The average post-retrofit weighted score was 6.3 (range 2.6 to 9.7), compared with the pre-retrofit average of 0.9 (range 0.3 to 1.6). Five tractors received a post-retrofit score of 8.0 or higher. None of the lower-scoring tractors fully met the specifications for placement of the bottom step or rear wheel guard, two key characteristics for runover prevention. Other characteristics associated with a lower post-retrofit score included a low bottom step, high step rises, absence of colored nosing, and the front handrail space not being filled in. Platform retrofitting had little effect on tractor operations and substantially improved ease of access. This is the first published evaluation of a design-based solution for tractor runover injuries. This study shows that general guidelines for retrofitting of safe access platforms can be successfully applied. Mechanisms to increase adherence to the key criteria of bottom step positioning and rear wheel guarding should be included in future promotion.     

Factors associated with the prevalence of non-ROPS tractors on farms in the U.S

Rollover protective structures (ROPS) are an effective engineering control known to prevent tractor overturn deaths, the leading cause of occupational fatalities for farmers and farm workers in the U.S. However, the use of ROPS is known to vary greatly from farm to farm. A national sample of 11,458 farm operators from the 2004 Occupational Injury Surveillance of Production Agriculture (OISPA) survey was used to assess the association between the prevalence of ROPS and ten farm operator and farm demographic variables using logistic regression. The variable were: operator's age, operator's sex, operator's education, farm sales, full- or part-time farming, acreage, type of operation, number of hired workers, number of injuries, and region. All ten variables were found to have significant associations with the prevalence of non-ROPS tractors on farms in the univariate logistic regressions. For the multivariate model, all variables except for the sex of the farm operator remained significant. Farms with less than three adult injuries, no hired workers, less than 300 acres in size, a Midwest location, and a primary farm type of tobacco, fruit and nuts, dairy, or poultry and eggs all had adjusted odds ratios of 2 or greater. Increasing the prevalence of ROPS-equipped tractors is essential for reducing the leading cause of death on farms, tractor overturns. Economic factors play a major role in the prevalence and distribution of non-ROPS tractors on farms. The identified associations can be used to effectively target areas of the U.S. for ROPS promotion activities.     

Effectiveness of the Indiana 4-H tractor program at instilling safe tractor operating behaviors and attitudes in youth

The purpose of this research was to determine what impact the Indiana 4-H Tractor Program has had on safer tractor operating behavior and attitudes of participants and to provide recommendations for program improvement. To assess the impact, 108 non 4-H youth who reported they operated a tractor regularly were compared with 104 4-H Tractor Program participants. A single skilled evaluator observed each individual in the two groups as she/he operated a tractor through a standard tractor-operating course. Information on recent tractor-related injury history and attitudes toward tractor safety was gathered using a written survey. Results showed that the program has had both a perceived and demonstrable positive influence; however, a need for improvements was also shown. Most significant of the findings was that participants in the 4-H Tractor Program were observed to operate tractors in a safer and more skillful manner. Even though the 4-H Tractor Program participants reported substantially more exposure time to tractor operation, they did not report a significantly different injury experience in comparison to the non-participants. Responses from the 4-H program participants, however, indicated a trend toward having more tractor-related close call incidents. There was no significant difference between the two groups in their attitudes toward tractor safety. Program recommendations developed as a result of the study primarily related to the need for updating instructional material used in the 4-H Tractor Program and the need for additional training and resources for volunteer leaders.     

A summary of state laws regulating youth operating farm tractors on highways

Driving farm tractors on highways is hazardous for youth due to the large speed differential between motor vehicles and agricultural vehicles, as well as recent increases in traffic volume on many rural roads. In 1994, the state of Wisconsin enacted legislation requiring youth who operate farm tractors on highways to complete a tractor and machinery certification course. We were interested in finding out whether other states have similar requirements. The purpose of this project was to collect and summarize state laws regulating youth who operate farm tractors on highways in the U.S. A systematic method was used that included an initial Lexis-Nexis database search followed by internet searches in combination with follow-up email and telephone communications when missing or unclear results were obtained. The findings show that 14 states have legislation addressing youth who operate farm tractors on highways. The content of these statutes varies, but includes driver's license or educational requirements, as well as regulations concerning the ages, locations, and/or times of day when youth may drive farm machinery on highways. This compilation of state laws will be useful information for agricultural safety professionals in designing effective outreach programs. A synthesis of the findings may also lead to the development of model legislation or inform future research efforts aimed at preventing youth farm tractor crashes on highways.     

Operator assessment of tractor roll angle with and without a tractor stability visual feedback device

According to a 2004 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) report, approximately 250 to 350 fatalities occur each year due to incidents involving production agriculture workers and tractors. Tractor overturns account for about 150 to 200 of these deaths. The goals of this project were to study operators' understanding of tractor roll angles and test a device to effectively deliver stability information to the tractor operator. This project required the design and construction of a full-scale tractor cab roll simulator that was used to identify lateral roll angles at which volunteer participants felt uncomfortable, as well as lateral roll angles at which they would no longer operate a tractor. In addition, the participants performed a series of tasks to test the functionality of a visual slope indicator that was designed to help them estimate slope angles. The project tested 231 tractor operators' perceptions of safe operation on side slopes and 128 participants' interactions with the visual slope indicator. Testing showed that the visual slope indicator was able to influence the angle estimations of the novice tractor operator population and helped the entire population of participants more accurately rank the simulator scenarios.     

混合动力拖拉机动力耦合装置的研制

近年来,农用车辆特别是拖拉机对环境和资源造成的压力逐年增大,开展节能环保拖拉机特别是混合动力拖拉机的研发已成为迫在眉睫的重要课题,而动力耦合装置是混合动力拖拉机的核心。该文根据拖拉机工作特性和传动特性要求,对混合动力拖拉机动力耦合装置传动比、特征参数和齿数匹配等进行了设计。根据传动载荷需求和制造工艺要求进行了结构设计和强度校核,研制了适用于并联式混合动力拖拉机的动力耦合装置。在自行搭建的混合动力拖拉机试验台上对该耦合装置进行了测试。试验结果表明,该装置能够满足拖拉机工作状态下的工作特性要求,输出端转速对动力源的转速变化很敏感,实时变化性能优,而输出端转矩对动力源转速变化不敏感。该耦合装置的研制为混合动力拖拉机的研发提供了基础。     

基于Raspberry Pi的拖拉机通用自动驾驶系统

为了改善现阶段拖拉机自动化驾驶系统主要针对单个特定型号的拖拉机进行开发的局限性,该文设计了一套采用分布式控制方式的拖拉机自动化驾驶系统。该系统的作用在于同SAFAR系统（software architecture for agricultural robot,农业机器人的软件体系结构）整合,成为一个能够进行实际工作的系统。系统采用Raspberry Pi微型计算机作为系统的电子控制单元（electronic control unit,ECU）,在不同的ECU上分别处理不同的任务,利用通讯协议传输控制协议/互联网络协议来进行ECU之间的通讯。为了保障系统的安全,该系统采用激光测距传感器R2100来保障车辆和周围环境的安全,采用Heart Beat（心跳）检测机制来探测系统故障。该系统可以接收来自SAFAR的控制信号,并对拖拉机进行相应的操作来实现拖拉机的自动化驾驶。除此之外,该系统还提供了无线遥控的功能,能够方便操作人员进行简单、直观的操控。经过测试,该系统能够正确、快速地响应来自操作人员或SAFAR的控制,控制系统的响应时间低于0.5 s,电机转向角误差小于0.06;舵机角度偏差4°左右;系统各个ECU之间通讯稳定可靠,可在试验设定的4 h内稳定工作,每0.25 s检测一次工作环境并给予响应。该研究对农业机械自动化的实现提供了参考。     

基于电液悬挂系统的拖拉机主动减振控制

大功率拖拉机的减振问题对于确保拖拉机的行驶安全性及舒适性起着决定性作用。该文基于电液悬挂系统对拖拉机进行了主动减振控制系统的设计,设计了带位置校正环节的离散滑模控制方法。该方法仅利用电液悬挂系统已有的牵引力传感器及位置传感器采集振动信息,而不需增加其他振动传感器。之后该文对系统进行了仿真和试验验证,结果表明:与不加控制前相比,主动减振控制使拖拉机的振动强度及前轮胎动载荷均显著降低,在受到水泥路障冲击后的整个过程中,农具振动加速度的均方根值降低了51.2%,后轮轴心的垂直加速度均方根值降低了20.1%;拖拉机质心的垂直加速度均方根值降低了16.6%;前轮胎的平均动载荷降低了39%;农具的存在引起的10~15 Hz的振动被完全抑制,农具的存在所加强的约5 Hz的俯仰振动也几乎消失;位置校正环节使液压缸活塞的运动轨迹保持在期望位置范围内。实车试验中,振动加速度测量信号的均方根值降低了25.7%;驾驶室内测点的垂直加速度的均方根值降低了26.4%。证明了所设计的主动减振控制器的有效性和可行性。     

轮胎胎压和车速对无悬架拖拉机横向乘坐振动特性的影响

为研究轮胎胎压和行驶速度对驾驶员横向乘坐振动特性的影响,该文以两轮驱动式无悬架国产拖拉机为研究对象,建立无悬架拖拉机横向-垂向平面三自由度模型,通过仿真和试验相结合,分别获取不同轮胎胎压和行驶速度下拖拉机座椅处横向加速度功率谱密度、横向加速度均方值以及总加权加速度均方根值,并分析各自的影响规律.结果表明:拖拉机座椅处横向固有频率试验值与理论计算值的最大相对误差为4.67%,座椅处横向加速度均方根试验值随后轮胎胎压和速度的变化规律与仿真是一致的,且试验值比仿真值要小,其相对误差最大值为5.26%,误差均在可接受范围内,表明建立的理论和仿真模型是可行的;前轮胎压的变化对两轮驱动式拖拉机乘坐横向振动特性的影响不大;当轮胎胎压不变时,试验获取的拖拉机座椅处总加权加速度均方根值随行驶速度的增大而增大;当行驶速度不变时,总加权加速度均方根值随后轮胎压的增大而波浪式增大.该研究为拖拉机多维减振悬架系统的设计提供参考.