Extraction of pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) seed oil by full pressing

Pennycress is currently being developed as an oilseed crop for biofuel production. Pennycress seeds harvested from a field near Peoria, Illinois, provided our first opportunity to conduct an oil extraction study on a pilot scale. The goals of this study were to determine the effects of seed moisture and cooking on the pressing characteristics of pennycress seeds and to evaluate the quality of the oils extracted. Pennycress seeds (60 kg) with 9.5 and 16% moisture contents (MC) were cooked and dried (82–104 °C) using a steam-heated 3-deck laboratory seed cooker. The residence times were varied to produce cooked seeds with MCs ranging from 1.0 to 13.0%. The cooked seeds were pressed immediately using a heavy duty laboratory screw press. Pressing rate, press load, and residual oil in the press cakes were determined. The oils extracted were analyzed for solids content (foots), free fatty acid (FFA) content, color, and phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) contents. Pressing uncooked pennycress seeds with 9.5% MC produced press cake with 10.7% oil (db), extracting 75.1% of the oil in the seed. Cooking and drying the seeds between 3 and 4% MC provided the highest oil recovery at 86.3 and 88.0% for seeds with 9.5 and 16% starting seed MC, respectively. The pressing rates and press loads at these MCs were similar. Compared to the oil from uncooked seeds, the oils from cooked seeds had higher foots (1.55–1.73% vs. 0.52%), slightly higher FFA contents (0.40–0.46% vs. 0.30%), and slightly higher red values in AOCS RY color scale (4.1R–6.2R vs. 2.4R). Cooking increased the phosphatide content but the amount was still comparable to degummed oils. The sulfur levels in the expelled oil were higher than the amounts found in rapeseed oil and varied considerably depending on the seed moisture and the extent of cooking employed.     

Milkweed seed wing removal to improve oil extraction

Milkweed is now being grown commercially mainly for the production of floss used as hypoallergenic fillers in pillows and comforters. More recently, the use of milkweed seed oil in soaps and personal care products is being explored. The oil used in this effort was obtained by screw pressing whole milkweed seeds. The milkweed seed has a considerable amount of paper-thin wing around the edge of the hull. The light wing contributes greatly to the low bulk density of the seeds and the efficiency of oil extraction. This study explored the feasibility of removing the wings from the seeds to reduce the amount of material going into oil extraction. Hand-fractionation of the seeds showed that the wings, hulls, and kernel accounted for 12.2%, 51.2%, and 36.5% of the seed weight, respectively. The wing contained 1% of the total oil. Most of the oil is in the kernel (73%), but a significant amount is also found in the hulls (22.4%). Mechanical removal of seed wing was evaluated using an impact huller. Seeds (1 kg) with 4%, 7.2%, and 10% moisture were passed through the huller running at 1250 and 1750 rpm impeller speeds. The seeds discharged from the huller were screened to separate the intact seeds and partially dewinged seeds, dewinged seeds, and fines. Seed wings were effectively removed at seed moisture contents and impeller speed combinations of 7% and 1250 rpm or 10% and 1700 rpm. This was verified using 100 kg seeds. Removing the wings reduced the weight of the seeds by 13%, reduced the volume by 46%, and increased the bulk density by 63% while losing less than 5% of the total oil. The oil content of the dewinged seeds was 16.6% higher than the whole seeds. These reductions in seed weight and volume can significantly increase the output of the oil extraction equipment.     

Chemical composition and profile characteristics of Osage orange Maclura pomifera (Rafin.) Schneider seed and seed oil

Studies were conducted on the properties of seeds and oil extracted from Maclura pomifera seeds. The following values (on a dry-weight basis) were obtained for M. pomifera seed, respectively: moisture 5.88%, ash 6.72%, oil 32.75% and the high protein content 33.89%. The carbohydrate content (20.76%) can be regarded as a source of energy for animals if included in their diets. The major nutrients (mg/100 g oil) were: potassium (421.65), calcium (218.56) and magnesium (185.00). The physicochemical properties of the oil include: the saponification number 174.57; the iodine value 141.43; the p-anisidine value 1.86; the peroxide value 2.33 meq O₂/kg; the acid value 0.66; the carotenoid content 0.59 mg/100 g oil; the chlorophyll content 0.02 (mg/100 g oil) and the refractive index 1.45. Polymorphic changes were observed in thermal properties of M. pomifera seed oil. This showed absorbency in the UV-B and UV-C ranges with a potential for use as a broad spectrum UV protectant. The main fatty acids of the crude oil were linoleic (76.19%), oleic (13.87%), stearic (6.76%) and palmitic acid (2.40%). The polyunsaturated triacylglycerols (TAGs) LLL, PLL, POL + SLL, OLL, OOL (L: linoleic acid, O: oleic, P: palmitic acid and S: stearic acid) acids were the major TAGs found in M. pomifera seed oil. A relatively high level of sterols making up 852.93 mg/100 g seed oil was present. The sterol marker, β-sitosterol, accounted for 81% of the total sterol content in the seed oil and is followed by campesterol (7.4%), stigmasterol (4.2%), lupeol (4.1%) and Δ⁵-avenesterol (3.2%). The seed oil was rich in tocopherols with the following composition (mg/100 g): α-tocopherol 18.92; γ-tocopherol 10.80; β-tocopherol 6.02 and δ-tocopherol 6.29. The results showed that M. pomifera seed oil could be used in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food products.     

Oil analysis in seeds of Salicornia brachiata

Oil analysis in seeds of Salicornia brachiata was carried out in the current study. Hexane extraction yielded maximum oil content from seeds (22.4%). High ester (538.32 mg/g) and saponification (547.52 mg/g) suggest a potential for industrial use of the oil.     

Effect of ageing on quality of jojoba oil from Indian locations

Jojoba oil is a source of specialty chemicals and its uses for industrial application are gaining in adaptability and importance. For prolong use of jojoba oil, the details of its storage behaviour are required. This information is scarce for the products obtained from Indian locations. In this study, the ageing effect on the quality of oils was studied for oils from five locations of Rajasthan (India). The oils were extracted/expelled from the seeds that contained 2.5–3.9 wt.% moisture and 42–50 wt.% oil.Physico-chemical properties were determined by standard analytical test methods. Effect of storage time on quality of solvent extracted oil samples with respect to acid value, iodine value, saponification value and peroxide value were determined. The samples were stored for 18 months in the laboratory under climatic condition prevailing in Dehradun (India) during study period. The analysis of samples was done at an interval of 3 months. The properties of jojoba oils compare well with the International Jojoba Expert Council (IJEC) specifications. During storage, acid values, iodine values and peroxide values of the oil increase with time while saponification values remain almost unchanged.     

Functional properties of protein from Lesquerella fendleri seed and press cake from oil processing

This investigation determined the functional properties of protein in Lesquerella fendleri seed and press cake from oil processing. L. fendleri seeds were heat-treated at 82 °C (180 °F) during 120 min residence time in the seed conditioner, and then screw-pressed to extract the oil. Unprocessed ground, defatted lesquerella seeds and press cakes were analyzed for proximate composition and protein functional properties. Protein from unprocessed lesquerella seed showed the greatest solubility (≥60%) at pH 2 and 10 and was least soluble (25%) at pH 5.5–7. Unprocessed lesquerella protein also had high surface hydrophobicity index (S_o), as well as, excellent foaming capacity and stability, emulsifying properties, and water-holding capacity (WHC) at pH 7. Protein solubility profile of the press cake showed up to 50% reduction in soluble proteins at nearly all pH levels, indicating heat denaturation during cooking and screw-pressing. Foaming capacity of the press cake protein decreased slightly, but foam stability was completely lost. Press cake protein also had markedly reduced values for S_o, emulsifying properties and WHC, further confirming lesquerella protein’s sensitivity to heat treatment.     

Synthetic lubricant basestocks from epoxidized soybean oil and Guerbet alcohols

Vegetable oils are biodegradable and therefore good candidates for environmentally friendly base stocks. They have excellent lubricity, but poor oxidation and low temperature stabilities. For this study, synthetic lubricant basestocks with oxidative stabilities and pour points comparable with commercial synthetic lubricant basestocks have been prepared by reacting epoxidized soybean oil with Guerbet alcohols. Four different Guerbet alcohols, C12-, C14-, C16-, and C18-Guerbet alcohols were used. Reaction of epoxidized soybean oil with a Guerbet alcohol in the presence of a catalytic amount of sulfuric acid provided open-ringed products. ¹H NMR has shown that transesterification follows after ring-opening reaction under the given reaction conditions. Two types of ring-opened products, 0%- and 100%-transesterified products, could be obtained under controlled reaction conditions. Pour points of the ring-opened products ranged from −18 to −36 °C without pour point depressant (PPD) and from −21 to −42 °C with 1% of PPD. Acetylation of hydroxy groups in the ring-opened products further lowered pour points that ranged from −27 to −42 °C without PPD and from −30 to −48 °C with 1% of PPD. Oxidative stability was examined using a modified Penn State microoxidation test and compared with those of synthetic lubricant basestocks and mineral oil. Oxidative evaporations of two selected products in the microoxidation test were similar to mineral oil and less than synthetic lubricant-based oils, polyalphaolefin (PAO₄) and diisododecyl adipate. Deposits of these products were similar to synthetic lubricant-based oils and less than mineral oil.     

Seed oil extraction using a solar powered screw press

An efficient and economical oil expression system that can operate on solar power in rural areas of underdeveloped and developing countries is needed. Recent improvements in both oil extraction and solar energy technologies have indicated the possibilities for fabricating oil extraction equipment. Thus, the objective of our study was to develop a simple oil expression unit capable of producing high quality oil based on solar energy in remote rural areas. A photovoltaic (PV), batch operated, low-pressure oil press, using a 190 W, 12 V dc motor, was designed, fabricated, and tested using coconut and groundnut as the raw material. Samples used in the study were ground to particle size between 500 μm and 2 mm and were pressed at 12 ± 1% moisture content. The press was evaluated based on the oil extraction efficiency (OEE), power consumption, and oil quality. The press had an average OEE of 73% for coconuts and 70% for groundnuts after 12 min of pressing. The oil expression efficiency was characterized by three main stages namely delayed, rapid, and retarded. The power consumption was affected greatly by the pressing time, with power consumption increasing with an increase in the pressing time. The specific energy consumption was found to increase significantly after 8 min of pressing and correlated with the compaction of the cake, which resulted in more power being required to express the entrapped oil. The expressed oil was fresh, free from foots, and of high quality with an average moisture content of 0.015% for coconut oil and 0.019% for groundnut. Analyses showed that the viscosities were 42.1 MPa s (coconut oil) and 59.1 MPa s (groundnut oil), at 25 °C. Overall, the press performed well and was comparable in performance to other types of presses.     

Synthesis and characterization of hazelnut oil-based biodiesel

The demand for diesel fuel far exceeds the current and future biodiesel production capabilities of the vegetable oil and animal fat industries. New oilseed crops that do not compete with traditional food crop are needed to meet existing energy demands. Hybrid hazelnut oil is just such an attractive raw material for production of biodiesel. Hazelnut oil was extracted from hybrid hazelnuts and the crude oil was refined. Hazelnut oil-based biodiesel was prepared via the transesterification of the refined hazelnut oil with excess methanol using an alkaline catalyst. The effects of reaction temperature, time and catalyst concentration on the yield of diesel were examined, and selected physical and chemical properties of the biodiesel were evaluated. The biodiesel yield increased with increasing temperature from 25 to 65 °C and with increasing catalyst concentration from 0.1 to 0.7 wt%. The increase in yield with reaction time was nonlinear and characterized by an initial faster rate, followed by a slow rate. Hazelnut oil-based biodiesel had an average viscosity of 8.82 cP at 25 °C, which was slightly higher than that of the commercial soy-based diesel (7.92 cP at 25 °C). An approximate 12 °C higher onset oxidative temperature and a 10 °C lower cloud point of hazelnut oil biodiesel than those of its commercial soy counterpart indicated a better oxidative stability and flowability at low temperature. The average heat of combustion of hazelnut oil biodiesel was 40.23 kJ/g, and accounted for approximately 88% of energy content of diesel fuel. The fatty acid composition of hazelnut oil-based biodiesel was the same as the nature oil.     

Essential oil variation among and within six Achillea species transferred from different ecological regions in Iran to the field conditions

The compositions of essential oils of 19 accessions belonging to six different Achillea species, transferred from the natural habitats in 10 provinces of Iran to the field conditions, were assessed. The relationship between the leaf areas of selected accessions with their essential oil content was also investigated. Essential oil yield of dried plants obtained by hydro-distillation ranged from 0.1 to 2.7% in leaves. Results indicated a significant variation in oil composition among and within species. Total of 94 compounds were identified in 19 accessions belonging to the six species of A. millefolium, A. filipendulina, A. tenuifolia, A. santolina, A. biebersteinii and A. eriophora. The major constituents of the leaves in the tested genotypes were determined as germacrene-D, bicyclogermacrene, camphor, borneol, 1,8-cineole, spathulenol and bornyl acetate. According to the major compounds, four chemotypes were defined as: (I) spathulenol (1.64–34.31%) + camphor (0.2–15.61%) (7 accessions); (II₁) germacrene-D (18.78–23.93%) + borneol (7.93–8.26%) + bornyl acetate (11.56–14.66%) (5 accessions); (II₂) germacrene-D (13.28–36.28%) + bicyclogermacrene (5.93–8.4%) + 1,8-cineole (15.26–19.41%) + camphor (14.95–23.32%) (2 accessions); (III) borneol + camphor (52.04–63.27) (2 accessions); (IV) germacrene-D (45.86–69.64%) (3 accessions). The relationships of chemotypes with soil type and climatic conditions of collected regions were assessed, as probable reasons of high variations in essential oil components, and discussed.     

The effects of harvest date,fermentation duration and Tween 20 treatment on essential oil content and composition of industrial oil rose (Rosa damascena Mill.)

The essential oil of Rosa damascena Mill. is one of the most valuable and important base material in the flavor and fragrance industry. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of harvest date, fermentation duration and Tween 20 treatment on the essential oil content and composition of the rose petals. The essential oil content and composition were significantly different in the petals harvested at various dates (May 24, June 1, 8, and 15, 2002). The highest oil content was found on May 24 harvest (0.040%), and then a gradual decrease was observed up to last harvest date (0.032%). The highest percentages of geraniol, nerol, and phenylethyl alcohol were obtained from the petals harvested on May 24. However, the highest percentages of citronellol and linalool were found from the petals harvested on June 8. The petals collected freshly were fermented for various duration (0, 12, 24, and 36 h) at 25 °C in sacks. The highest essential oil content was found in the non-fermented petals. As fermentation duration increased, essential oil content gradually decreased. The most significant changes during the fermentation were observed in citronellol and geraniol contents. Citronellol/geraniol (C/G) ratio increased from 0.57 to 10.31 throughout the fermentation. In the other experiment, Tween 20 was added into the distillation water at various concentrations (0, 1000, 2500, and 5000 ppm). Although Tween 20 generally raised the contents of essential oil, it did not significantly influence the oil composition. The highest oil content (0.045%) was obtained from the distillation treated with 2500 ppm of Tween 20. Oil content had high positive correlations with geraniol and linalool contents (r=0.55 and 0.53, respectively), but high negative correlation with citronellol content (r=−0.48).     

Extraction of simmondsin and oil in one step from jojoba seeds

Approximately all simmondsin and oil can be easily removed in one step by repeated extraction with water at 90 °C from ground jojoba seeds. The optimum time and temperature of extraction were respectively 1.5 h and 90 °C. Quantitative analysis of simmondsin was made by HLPC method using adenosine as internal standard.     

Sesame oleosin and prepro-2S albumin expressed as a fusion polypeptide in transgenic rice were split,processed and separately assembled into oil bodies and protein bodies

A recombinant polypeptide containing the precursor protein of a sesame storage protein, 2S albumin, fused to the C-terminus of a sesame oleosin was expressed in transgenic rice seeds under the control of a rice glutelin promoter. The recombinant polypeptide of 32 kDa, equivalent to the resultant molecular mass of sesame oleosin (15 kDa) and prepro-2S albumin (17 kDa), was detected in the endoplasmic reticulum fraction of maturing transgenic rice seeds, but not in the purified oil bodies or the soluble extract of transgenic seeds. However, sesame oleosin presumably fused with a 2 kDa C-terminal appendix originating from the signal sequence of prepro-2S albumin, was found in the purified oil bodies, and mature sesame 2S albumin apparently processed into two subunits (9 and 4 kDa) linked by disulfide bonds was detected in extracts of transgenic seeds. Immunogold labeling revealed that the sesame oleosin and 2S albumin were separately located in oil bodies and protein bodies of embryo cells of transgenic rice seeds. While sesame 2S albumin was also detected in protein bodies of endosperm cells of transgenic seeds, the co-expressed sesame oleosin, probably degraded due to the lack of oil bodies in this tissue, and was not detected. The results provide a new technique for introducing two recombinant polypeptides separately into rice oil bodies and protein bodies from one expression construct.     

Sodium hydroxide and trimetaphosphate levels affect properties of starch extrudates

In addition to being consumed as food, starch is considered for replacement of petroleum-based plastics, but imparts negative effect like water absorption and solubilization in water. In this study, the effects of sodium hydroxide and sodium trimetaphosphate concentrations on the water absorption and solubility indices of starch cross-linked by sodium hydroxide and sodium were evaluated. Starch was granulated, and 0.3 kg granulated starch was mixed with 65 ml sodium hydroxide at three concentrations (0.2, 0.6, and 1.0 M), sodium trimetaphosphate at two levels (0.015 and 0.045 kg sodium trimetaphosphate corresponding to 5 and 15% of starch), and water to adjust moisture content to 40% (dry basis). The samples were extruded in a single-screw extruder at a barrel temperature of 130 °C and screw speed of 140 rpm. Phosphorus content and pasting viscosity of starch extrudates showed that starch was cross-linked with phosphorus that was incorporated into starch during extrusion. The extrusion and cross-linking of starch with 5% sodium trimetaphosphate reduced water absorption index, and increasing sodium trimetaphosphate percentage reduced water absorption index further at high levels of sodium hydroxide. On the other hand, the reduction in water solubility of starch extrudates required the extrusion of starch with more than 5% sodium trimetaphosphate, but increasing the sodium hydroxide level increased the water solubility index of extrudates.     

Insecticidal and acaricidal effect of three Lamiaceae plant essential oils against Tetranychus urticae Koch and Bemisia tabaci Genn.

Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Bemisia tabaci Genn. (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) are two economically important pests of greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals. The management is commonly done based on repetitive applications of chemicals, resulting in environmental pollution and resistance in pest population.In the present study, essential oil vapours from Micromeria fruticosa L., Nepeta racemosa L. and Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae) were tested for toxicities against the nymphs and/or adults of T. urticae and the adults of B. tabaci. Amounts of the essential oils applied were 2, 4, 6 and 8 μl in each of the desiccators with 4 l capacity, corresponding to 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 μl/l air. The essential oil vapours of all three plant species caused the highest mortality in 2 μl/l air doses and at 120 h of exposure in both of two pests’ species. In general, higher mortality was observed as the doses of essential oils and exposure period increased. T. urticae was more tolerant than B. tabaci at all doses of essential oils in all times. The data may suggest that essential oils of all three plants have potential to be used for management of T. urticae and B. tabaci pests in greenhouse conditions.     

Preparation of biodiesel from Idesia polycarpa var. vestita fruit oil

The feasibility of producing biodiesel from Idesia polycarpa var. vestita fruit oil was studied. A methyl ester biodiesel was prepared from refined I. polycarpa fruit oil using methanol and potassium hydroxide (KOH) in an alkali-catalyzed transesterification process. The experimental variables investigated in this study were catalyst concentration (0.5–2.0 wt.% of oil), methanol/oil molar ratio (4.5:1 to 6.5:1), temperature (20–60 °C) and reaction time (20–60 min). A maximum yield of over 99% of methyl esters in I. polycarpa fruit oil biodiesel was achieved using a 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 1.0% KOH (% oil) and reaction time for 40 min at 30 °C. The properties of I. polycarpa fruit oil methyl esters produced under optimum conditions were also analyzed for specifications for biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines according to China Biofuel Systems Standards. The fuel properties of the I. polycarpa fruit oil biodiesel obtained are similar to the No. 0 light diesel fuel and most of the parameters comply with the limits established by specifications for biodiesel.     

Cardinal temperatures for germination and early growth of two Lesquerella species

Lesquerella (Lesquerella fendleri) is a potential alternative crop that is being studied for commercial oilseed production. Understanding the minimum temperatures for germination and seedling growth is important for determining potential areas for lesquerella production. The objectives of this study were to determine the cardinal temperatures for germination and seedling growth, and to screen ecotypes for germination and growth characteristics. A temperature gradient table arrangement was used to observe seed germination over a range of temperatures, and time to germination and shoot appearance. Times to 5 mm root length and 5 mm shoot length were also measured to assess cardinal temperatures for seedling survival and growth. Two different species were examined, L. fendleri and a species we refer to as ‘L. pallida aff.’ because it differed from typical L. pallida plants in chromosome number and in oil quality. We concluded that both germination and growth of L. pallida aff. occurred fastest at 22 °C, whereas L. fendleri germinated earlier at 18 °C, but grew faster at 22 °C. L. pallida aff. also had lower germination than L. fendleri over the range studied. Non-dormant seeds of improved lines of L. fendleri had better performance at temperatures above 22 °C than did unimproved accessions. Lines of L. fendleri selected for high oil content and salt tolerance had similar temperature requirements for germination except for improved line WCL-LO3, the current line being used in production. This line had optimal temperatures 6 °C higher for germination and growth than the other improved lines. Accessions of L. fendleri collected from elevations above 2000 m performed better at warmer temperatures, whereas those collected from elevations below 2000 m tended to perform better at cooler temperatures. Dormant seeds of L. fendleri germinated more quickly at low temperatures and had lower base (<3 °C) and optimal (22 °C) temperatures than non-dormant seeds (>7 °C and 28 °C, respectively). We speculate that this partial dormancy trait allows populations of L. fendleri to exploit a wider range of temperature conditions in the wild in order to thrive in extreme environments.     

Influence of sources and doses of N and K on herbage,oil yield and nutrient uptake of patchouli [Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.] in semi-arid tropics

Patchouli oil is one of the most important essential oils used in modern perfumery and cosmetic industries. There is hardly any preparation of oriental nature where patchouli oil is not used. It is used mainly because of fixative property as it gives tenacity to other perfumes. Field experiments were conducted at Bangalore, India, to study the influence of sources and doses of N and K on herbage, oil yield, nutrient uptake, nitrogen utilization efficiency and oil content of patchouli [Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.]. The results revealed that application of 200 kg N/ha and 41.5 kg K/ha produced significant higher patchouli herbage and oil yields compared with controls. Similarly, N and K uptake were also higher at 200 kg N and 41.5 kg K/(ha year) compared with controls. DCD-coated urea produced higher herbage, oil yield and N uptake and utilization efficiency compared with prilled urea. There was no effect of sources of K on the yield of patchouli. The oil content was not influenced by N, K doses or sources applied. N and K depletion were noticed in the soil.     

Seed yield components,oil content,and fatty acid composition of two cultivars of moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) growing in the Arid Chaco of Argentina

Moringa oleifera Lam. (M. pterygosperma Gaertn [Moringaceae]) is a fast-growing small tree native to the sub-Himalayan tracts of Northern India. The recognition that moringa oil has value in cosmetics has increased interest in cultivating it for seed-oil. The experimental trials were conducted in a semi-commercial moringa plantation in the subtropical northwestern region of Argentina, considering the similar climate conditions to the plant native region. Pods per tree, seeds per pod, weight of seed per pod, kernel weight, kernels oil content and fatty acid composition of PKM-1 and African cultivars were determined. One individual, E₄-9, a PKM-1 plant, had significantly (P < 0.05) higher production than all other plants. In addition, this individual was the highest extrapolated oil producer in both 2003 and 2004, with 595 and 564 kg ha^?1, respectively (ave. 580 kg ha^?1). Seed weight (200-seed wt.) was significantly greater in 2003 than 2004; no other traits studied showed significant differences between years. Both cultivars produced-oil with practically identical fatty acid composition, and the monounsaturated ω-9 oleic fatty acid accounted for more than 70% of the total for both cultivars. The polyunsaturated ω-6 linoleic fatty acid content of the African cultivar was slightly, but significantly (P < 0.05), higher than that of PKM-1.     

Camelina oil as a fuel for diesel transport engines

A light commercial road vehicle fitted with a heated fuel line and tank was run on cold pressed and filtered camelina sativa seed oil and unheated mineral diesel fuel. It was found that the seed oil produced a maximum power at the road wheels of 43.25 kW and returned 12.57 km/l compared to 38.50 kW and 14.03 km/l for the mineral fuel. At an engine speed >2000 rpm and high loading, both smoke opacity and CO emitted from the exhaust was found to be approximately 50% lower with the seed oil than with the mineral fuel, however, NO was higher for the seed oil by almost 6% at engine speeds >3500 rpm, but similar <3500 rpm. The CO₂ and O₂ emissions were similar and NO₂ emitted was negligible for both fuels. The effect of heating at 170 °C on the camelina sativa seed oil was investigated and a significant increase in viscosity was observed which coincided with a reduction in the iodine value of the oil.