What is soundscape ecology? An introduction and overview of an emerging new science

We summarize the foundational elements of a new area of research we call soundscape ecology. The study of sound in landscapes is based on an understanding of how sound, from various sources—biological, geophysical and anthropogenic—can be used to understand coupled natural-human dynamics across different spatial and temporal scales. Useful terms, such as soundscapes, biophony, geophony and anthrophony, are introduced and defined. The intellectual foundations of soundscape ecology are described—those of spatial ecology, bioacoustics, urban environmental acoustics and acoustic ecology. We argue that soundscape ecology differs from the humanities driven focus of acoustic ecology although soundscape ecology will likely need its rich vocabulary and conservation ethic. An integrative framework is presented that describes how climate, land transformations, biodiversity patterns, timing of life history events and human activities create the dynamic soundscape. We also summarize what is currently known about factors that control temporal soundscape dynamics and variability across spatial gradients. Several different phonic interactions (e.g., how anthrophony affects biophony) are also described. Soundscape ecology tools that will be needed are also discussed along with the several ways in which soundscapes need to be managed. This summary article helps frame the other more application-oriented papers that appear in this special issue.     

90 years of forest cover change in an urbanizing watershed: spatial and temporal dynamics

Landscape structure in the Eastern US experienced great changes in the last century with the expansion of forest cover into abandoned agricultural land and the clearing of secondary forest cover for urban development. In this paper, the spatial and temporal patterns of forest cover from 1914 to 2004 in the Gwynns Falls watershed in Baltimore, Maryland were quantified from historic maps and aerial photographs. Using a database of forest patches from six times—1914, 1938, 1957, 1971, 1999, and 2004—we found that forest cover changed, both temporally and spatially. While total forest area remained essentially constant, turnover in forest cover was very substantial. Less than 20% of initial forest cover remained unchanged. Forest cover became increasingly fragmented as the number, size, shape, and spatial distribution of forest patches within the watershed changed greatly. Forest patch change was also analyzed within 3-km distance bands extending from the urban core to the more suburban end of the watershed. This analysis showed that, over time, the location of high rates of forest cover change shifted from urban to suburban bands which coincides with the spatial shift of urbanization. Forest cover tended to be more stable in and near the urban center, whereas forest cover changed more in areas where urbanization was still in process. These results may have critical implications for the ecological functioning of forest patches and underscore the need to integrate multi-temporal data layers to investigate the spatial pattern of forest cover and the temporal variations of that spatial pattern.     

Cloning of the S25 cDNA from ‘McIntosh’ apple and an S25-allele identification method

Summary

An S₂₅-RNase gene in the pistil responsible for self-incompatibility within the apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) was cloned from a McIntosh cultivar. We developed an S₂₅-allele-specific polymerase chain reaction and digestion (PCR-digestion) method using specific primers and the restriction enzyme BamHI. We investigated the S-allele genotypes of 18 ‘McIntosh’ progeny.     

Aligning landscape structure with ecosystem services along an urban–rural gradient. Trade-offs and transitions towards cultural services

Landscape Ecology - Urban–rural gradients provide a suitable framework for studying the provision of urban and rural ecosystem services (ES), linked to social welfare. Landscape structure...     

Influence of rootstock on vegetative growth,fruit yield and quality in ‘Cuore di Bue’, an heirloom tomato

Summary

Heirloom tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) such as ‘Cuore di Bue’ are highly appreciated by consumers for their outstanding quality and flavour. Nowadays, they are often grafted onto vigorous rootstocks in order to overcome several soil-borne diseases. The present study was conducted in 2007 and 2008 in Southern Italy. Plants of ‘Cuore di Bue’, an heirloom ‘oxheart’ tomato, were grown in a greenhouse either as non-grafted plants, or grafted onto two inter-specific (S. lycopersicum S. habrochaites) rootstocks (‘Beaufort F₁’ and ‘Maxifort F₁’) in order to evaluate their effects on vegetative growth, marketable yield, fruit quality, and the sensory properties of ‘Cuore di Bue’ tomato fruit. Growth analysis revealed that ‘Maxifort F₁’ enhanced plant growth, particularly in terms of leaf area and leaf fresh weight. Grafted plants had higher leaf area ratios (by 13%) and higher leaf dry weight fractions (by 18%) compared to non-grafted ‘Cuore di Bue’ plants. Marketable yields increased by 20 – 25% in grafted plants in both years. However, total soluble solids (TSS) contents, titratable acidity (TA), and TSS/TA ratios were not significantly affected by grafting.Vitamin C contents decreased by 14 – 20% in both years in the fruit of plants grafted onto either rootstock. The sensory profiles of fruit were not modified by grafting, although taste panelists expressed a higher preference for purchasing fruit from plants grafted onto ‘Maxifort F₁’. These results confirm that, when using the appropriate rootstock/scion combination, grafting can improve plant growth and the marketable yield of heirloom tomato fruit without reducing the sensory quality of the fruit or its biochemical parameters. However, grafting can reduce vitamin C contents and, thus, nutritional quality.     

Critical ethylene exposure for Capsicum annuum ‘Janne’ is dependent on an interaction between concentration,duration and developmental stage

Summary

Two ethylene experiments were designed to show the reaction of the pot plant Capsicum annuum ‘Janne’ to ethylene and to define the critical level of ethylene exposure. The ethylene exposure consisted of 72 h of darkness at 19°C, an ethylene duration of 6–72 h and ethylene concentrations of 0.05–5.0 µl l^?1. After the plants had been exposed to ethylene they were placed in a post-production evaluation room. The response of capsicum to ethylene, as expressed by leaf and fruit abscission, was dependent on developmental stage, duration of ethylene exposure and ethylene concentration. Leaves were the most ethylene-sensitive plant parts, followed by the green and maroon fruits. Ethylene did not affect the rate of development into red fruits. The most developed plants were less sensitive to ethylene. Capsicum is very sensitive to ethylene, e.g. there was significant abscission of leaves after exposure to an ethylene concentration of 1.0 µl l^?1 for 12 h and a significant abscission of leaves and green fruit after exposure to 0.05 µl^?1 for 72 h. A critical ethylene exposure is suggested, dependent on plant sensitivity, duration of ethylene exposure and ethylene concentration.     

Does manipulation of fruit-tree architecture affect the development of pests and pathogens? A case study in an organic apple orchard

Summary

Centrifugal training, based on the extinction procedure, is an innovative type of apple tree training recently used in French apple orchards. A thinning cut of fruiting spurs along the trunk and on the proximal and underside parts of the fruiting branches modifies the within-tree leaf density and light environment, which is likely to affect the development of some apple pests and pathogens. In this study, development of the most serious foliar pests (aphids, mites) and disease (apple scab) was assessed over 3 years in an organic apple orchard with two training systems: the centrifugal training (CT) system, and the Original Solaxe (OS) system, using a bent axis with no removal of fruiting spurs, as a control. Infestation levels were significantly lower in 2002 and 2004 in the CT system than in the OS system for the most prevalent pest, the rosy apple aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea and, in 2003, for the red spider mite, Panonychus ulmi. Infestation by the green apple aphid, Aphis pomi, was higher in June 2002 and 2004 and lower in June 2003 in the CT system, compared to the OS control. The incidence of apple leaf scab was lower in the CT system than in the OS control in Spring 2002 and Spring 2004; but, later in the Summer, it increased more in CT trees, resulting in no difference between training systems in the levels of fruit infection at harvest. Hypotheses considered were based mainly on: (i) the removal of pests or inoculum due to the thinning cut of fruiting spurs for CT trees; (ii) effects on within-tree microclimate, providing a more aerated canopy in the CT system; (iii) shoot density and distribution, allowing greater distances between growing shoots in CT trees; and/or (iv) the shoot growth dynamics, allowing the presence of attractive or susceptible leaves in late June. Since the most serious apple pests and diseases were less prevalent in the CT system over the 3 years of the experiment, CT may prove to be a complementary, sustainable means to contribute to crop protection, especially in organic or integrated pest management orchards.     

Using an individual-based model to examine the roles of habitat fragmentation and behavior on predator–prey relationships in seagrass landscapes

Seagrasses, which form critical subtidal habitats for marine organisms worldwide, are fragmented via natural processes but are increasingly being fragmented and degraded by boating, fishing, and coastal development. We constructed an individual-based model to test how habitat fragmentation and loss influenced predator–prey interactions and cohort size for a group of settling juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus Rathbun) in seagrass landscapes. Using results from field studies suggesting that strong top-down processes influence the relationship between cannibalistic blue crab populations and seagrass landscape structure, we constructed a model in which prey (juvenile blue crabs) are eaten by mesopredators (larger blue crabs) which in turn are eaten by top-level predators (e.g., large fishes). In our model, we varied the following parameters within four increasingly fragmented seagrass landscapes to test for their relative effects on cohort size: juvenile blue crab (prey) predator avoidance response, hunting ability of mesopredators and predators, the presence of a top-level predator, and prey settlement routines. Generally, prey cohort size was maximized in the presence of top-level predators and when mesopredators and predators exhibited random searching behavior vs. directed hunting. Cohort size for stationary (tethered) prey was maximized in fragmented landscapes, which corresponds to results from field experiments, whereas mobile prey able to detect and avoid predators had higher survival in continuous landscapes. Prey settlement patterns had relatively small influences on cohort size. We conclude that the effects of seagrass fragmentation and loss on organisms such as blue crabs will depend heavily on behaviors of prey and predatory organisms and how these behaviors change with landscape structure.     

Landscape,fire and habitat: which features of recently burned heathland influence site occupancy of an early successional specialist?

Context

Multiple ecological drivers generate spatial patterns in species’ distributions. Changes to natural disturbance regimes can place early successional habitat specialists at an increased risk of extinction by altering landscape patterns of habitat suitability.

Objectives

We developed a series of hypotheses to evaluate the effects of landscape structure, fire history, and site-level habitat quality on site occupancy by an early successional specialist, the eastern chestnut mouse (Pseudomys gracilicaudatus).

Methods

We obtained eight years of monitoring data from 26 sites in recently burned heathland in southeast Australia. We used generalised linear models to determine which explanatory variables were related to occupancy. We also explored predictability in patterns of small mammal species co-occurrence.

Results

Landscape structure (patch area, landscape heterogeneity) was strongly related to site occupancy. Site occupancy was associated with dead shrubs in the understory and rock cover on ground layer, but was not directly influenced by recent or historical fire. Contrary to contemporary ecological theory, we found no predictable species associations in our early successional community.

Conclusions

We recommend surveys take account of landscape configuration and proximity to suitable habitat for optimal results. Fire regimes expected to promote eastern chestnut mouse population growth should encourage the retention of critical habitat features rather than be based on temporal rates of successional stages. For management to adequately account for post-disturbance patterns in early successional communities, a species-by-species, multi-scaled approach to research is necessary.

     

Can canopy temperature acquired from an airborne level be a tree health indicator in an urban environment?

Nowadays, gathering information about tree health conditions in cities is necessary. Trees are essential in regulating urban microclimate and mitigating the urban heat island effect. Therefore, their health status should be crucial in urban vegetation monitoring. The growing number of new cameras, sensors and research methods allows for a broader application of thermal data in remote sensing vegetation studies. This research aimed to evaluate whether it is possible to use thermal infrared data to assess the health condition of selected species of deciduous trees in an urban environment. More specifically, the data must have a 3.6–4.9 µm spectral range, obtained during the day and the night. For this purpose, research was carried out in the city center of Warsaw (Poland) in 2020. During the airborne data acquisition, thermal data, laser scanning and RGB images were collected. Synchronously with airborne data, 617 ground references were obtained in different health condition classes (healthy, slightly poor condition, poor condition and dying) for five tree species: Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus, Aesculus hippocastanum, Tilia cordata and Tilia × euchlora. The results were as follows: (i) healthy trees were cooler than trees in poor condition and dying both during the daytime and nighttime; (ii) the difference in the canopy temperatures between healthy and dying trees was 1.06 °C of mean value on the nighttime data and 3.28 °C of mean value on the daytime data; (iii) all condition classes significantly differ from each other on daytime thermal data. The aerial thermal data can be considered a new alternative to hyperspectral data. Thermal sensing represents another method of assessing the health condition of trees in an urban environment – especially data obtained during the day, which can differentiate condition classes better than data obtained at night. The method based on thermal infrared and laser scanning data fusion could be a quick and efficient solution for identifying trees in poor health.     

Control of superficial scald in ‘Granny Smith’ apples by ultra-low and stress levels of oxygen as an alternative to diphenylamine

Summary

‘Granny Smith’ apples were harvested at weekly intervals, commencing approximately 155 d after full bloom (DFFB), over two successive seasons. Subsamples of the fruit were stored for periods of five and six months, without the application of diphenylamine, under regular atmosphere (RA) (1990/91 season only), and ultra-low oxygen (ULO) controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions. Further samples were subjected to initial low oxygen stress (ILOS) conditions before ULO CA storage. During the 1989/90 season, scald development after five months’ storage was low for fruit which had been picked in the pre- and post-maturity phases, but high on fruit picked at optimum maturity (170 DFFB). Although storage regime had little effect on scald development after five months’ storage, the ILOS + ULO CA treatment resulted in lower levels of scald on the post-mature fruit after six months of storage than was the case under ULO CA storage alone. There was more scald in the 1990/91 season than in the previous season. Under RA storage conditions, scald levels were high after both five and six months of storage, and decreased only slightly the later the apples were picked. Relative to RA, storage under ULC CA conditions led to markedly lower scald levels on the post-mature fruit, but did not greatly reduce scald on the pre-mature and mature fruit. Storage under the ILOS + ULO CA regime, however, conferred low levels of superficial scald on pre-mature, mature and post-mature fruit after both five and six months of storage. These results suggest that although superficial scald on ‘Granny Smith’ apples can be inhibited by a combination of ILOS and ULO CA storage, the development of scald is also affected by factors other than maturity and storage period.     

The Urban Tree Arboretum in Hørsholm,Denmark: A new tool towards an improved education of arborists and tree managers

The establishment and management of urban trees require expert knowledge and experience. The Urban Tree Arboretum (UTA) was established in Hørsholm, Denmark, to improve basic and advanced education for students and professionals working with tree establishment and management. The UTA presents 120 tree species and cultivars suitable for urban plantings. The trees were established in 2001 in replicates of three or six. Different pruning treatments allow for a comparison of their effect on the trees: formative pruning, shape pruning (topiary), pollarding and non-pruned. Tree dimensions are measured yearly and made available on the website www.bytraearboretet.dk. The website also offers photographic documentation of the trees and their tree features as well as a reference list open for entries by the public. The UTA is integrated part of several courses at the University of Copenhagen and has in 2007 and 2008 been visited by 570 external visitors on 27 guided tours.     

Towards an energy–landscape integrated analysis? Exploring the links between socio-metabolic disturbance and landscape ecology performance (Mallorca,Spain, 1956–2011)

Context

The role of agricultural landscapes in biodiversity conservation is an emerging topic in a world experiencing a worrying decrease of species richness. Farm systems may either decrease or increase biological diversity, depending on land-use intensities and management.

Objectives

We present an intermediate disturbance-complexity model (IDC) of cultural landscapes aimed at assessing how different levels of anthropogenic disturbance on ecosystems affect the capacity to host biodiversity depending on the land matrix heterogeneity. It is applied to the Mallorca Island, amidst the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot.

Methods

The model uses the disturbance exerted when farmers alter the Net Primary Production through land-use change as well as when they remove a share of it (HANPP), together with Shannon–Wiener index (H′) of land-cover diversity. The model is tested with a twofold-scalar experimental design (1:50,000 and 1:5000) of a set of landscape units along three time points (1956, 1989, 2011). Species richness of breeding and wintering birds, taken as a biodiversity proxy, is used in an exploratory factor analysis.

Results

The results clearly show that when intermediate levels of HANPP are performed within intermediate levels of complexity (H′) in landscape patterns, like agro-forest mosaics, great bird species richness and high socio-ecological resilience can be maintained. Yet, these complex-heterogeneous landscapes are currently vanishing due to industrial farm intensification, rural abandonment and urban sprawl.

Conclusions

The results make apparent the usefulness of transferring the concept of intermediate disturbance-complexity interplay to cultural landscapes. Our spatial-explicit IDC model can be used as a tool for strategic environmental assessment of land-use planning.

     

Untersuchungen zum Auftreten von Druckstellen an Äpfeln nach der Auslagerung

Zusammenfassung Es wurde untersucht, welche Faktoren die Empfindlichkeit von ?pfeln für Druckstellen unmittelbar nach der CA/ULO-Lagerung (CA = Controlled Atmosphere, ULO = Ultra Low Oxygen) beeinflussen. Früchte der Sorten ‘Golden Delicious’ und ‘Jonagold’ wurden nach der CA/ULO-Lagerung für fünf Tage bei vier verschiedenen Nachlagerungsbedingungen (kühl in und ohne Folienbeutel, warm in und ohne Folienbeutel) aufbewahrt. Direkt nach der Auslagerung, ein Tag und fünf Tage sp?ter wurden die ?pfel mittels zwei Apparaturen unterschiedlichen Belastungen ausgesetzt, um Druckstellen zu erzeugen. Weitere gemessene Parameter waren die Fruchtfleischfestigkeit, der Gelbwert, der Gewichtsverlust, der Zellbruchpunkt und die Schalenbruchfestigkeit. Das Ausma? der Druckstellen nahm mit steigender Belastung der Früchte zu. Die warm gelagerten Früchte zeigten mit zunehmender Zeit der Nachlagerung eine geringere Druckstellenempfindlichkeit. Die kühl gelagerten Früchte der Sorte ‘Golden Delicious’ zeigten eine Zunahme der Druckstellenempfindlichkeit im Verlauf der Nachlagerung, die der Sorte ‘Jonagold’ eine Abnahme oder keine Ver?nderung. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Druckstellenempfindlichkeit und der Fruchtfleischfestigkeit, dem Zellbruchpunkt oder der Schalenbruchfestigkeit wurde nicht festgestellt.      

Effects of immune-activated platelets and LDL on expression and activity of COX-2 and PPAR-α in HUVECs

AIM: To observe the effect of immune-activated platelets and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) on the expression and activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPAR-α) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) treated with activated platelets and LDL. METHODS: The platelets were activated by ADP. The co-culture system of HUVECs with immune activated platelets and/or LDL were established. The activity of COX-2 and expression of PPAR-α at mRNA and protein levels in HUVECs were detected by RT-PCR and Western blotting. The concentration of PGE2 was measured by ELISA for representing the COX-2 activity. The PPAR-α activity was determined by a nuclear factor assay kit. RESULTS: The COX-2 activity and mRNA expression of PPAR-α, the protein levels of COX-2 and PPAR-α and PGE2 concentration in activated platelets group were significant higher than those in un-activated platelets group (all P<0.01). No difference of PPAR-α binding activity was observed between two groups. LDL didnt affect the COX-2 activity and PPAR-α expression, but significantly promoted the stimulating effect of immune-activated platelets. CONCLUSION: Immune-activated platelets significantly promote COX-2 activity and PPAR-α expression in HUVECs, but dont change the PPAR-α binding activity. LDL at general concentration does not affect the expression and activity of COX-2 and PPAR-α, but promote the effect of activated platelets on HUVECs.