Comparison of the caudal lung borders determined by percussion and ultrasonography in horses with recurrent airway obstruction

The aim of the study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of thoracic percussion and ultrasonography with the help of distance measurements and statistical methods in the determination of the caudal lung border in horses with recurrent airway obstruction (RAO). Examinations were performed on 11 healthy, warm-blooded horses of different breeds, age and grade of disease. First, the caudal lung border was determined by the traditional indirect percussion method in the 10th, 12th, 14th and 16th intercostal spaces at the end of inspiration and expiration on both sides of the thorax. To apply standardised measurements, a fix point was chosen as described earlier by the same authors for healthy horses. The distance between this point and the caudal lung border was measured with a tape-measure. Percussion was followed by ultrasonographic determination of the caudal lung border. Measurements were performed in the same way as described for the percussion technique. Mean values and standard errors of absolute values of differences between percussion and ultrasonographic measurements were the following, in centimetres (10th, 12th, 14th and 16th intercostal spaces). Left side expiration: 1.4, 0.4; 0.8, 0.2; 0.9, 0.2; 0.8, 0.4; left side inspiration: 0.8, 0.3; 1.5, 0.3; 1.4, 0.3; 1.1, 0.3; right side expiration: 2.1, 1.0; 2.1, 0.5; 1.6, 0.5; 0.8, 0.1; right side inspiration: 1.5, 0.7; 1.2, 0.6; 0.8, 0.2; 0.8, 0.3, respectively. Ultrasonography proved to be reliable in determining the caudal lung borders in horses with RAO. Results of the percussion examination did not differ significantly from those of the ultrasound method which was used as a reference technique. The differences between inspiration and expiration were greater in horses with RAO than in healthy horses in a previous study. Based on these results, percussion can be used as an integrated part of the physical examination in diagnosing caudal shift of the caudal lung border of horses suffering from RAO.     

Ultrasonographic description of the caudal and ventral lung borders in normal Warmblood horses

The aim of the study was to describe the caudal and ventral lung border in clinically normal horses more precisely than it had been described previously and also to resolve the contradictions of data published in standard textbooks. Twenty‐two healthy Warmblood horses were used in the study. The lung border was determined by 2‐dimensional ultrasonography at the following anatomical levels: tuber olecrani, tuberositas deltoidea of the humerus, tuberculum majus of the humerus, tuber ischiadicum and ventral, mid‐ and dorsal points of the tuber coxae. Examinations were performed bilaterally at the end of inspiration and expiration. Distances between the actual lung borders and corresponding anatomical levels were measured and compared statistically. The results showed that the olecranon could not be used as an anatomical landmark. Instead, the deltoid tuberosity could be used as an alternative, as the lung border was found in the 7th intercostal space (ICS) in 14 horses and in the 8th ICS in 8 horses. The lung border at the level of the tuberculum majus was found in the 10th ICS in every horse. At the level of the tuber ischiadicum, the lung border was detected equally in the 14th (11 horses) and 15th (11 horses) ICS. At the level of the ventral and midpoint of the tuber coxae, the lung border was found in the 15th or 16th ICS. No lung border was found at the level of the dorsal point of the tuber coxae or in the 17th ICS.     

Comparative examination of percussional and echocardiographic determination of the cardiac dullness area in healthy horses

Since percussion started to be a method forgotten and not trusted by many practitioners, the aim of the study was to demonstrate whether this procedure could deliver exact data if done accurately and by a practised examiner. The trial presented here included 31 healthy warm-blooded horses. Percussion of the area of cardiac dullness and then echocardiographic imaging of the same region were performed. To obtain the relevant measurement points, the 4th and 5th intercostal spaces (ICS) were used on the left and the 4th ICS on the right side. On the left side, the dorsal border of cardiac dullness was determined in the 4th ICS (1st point). Then the ventral border of the cardiac dullness was determined at the same place (2nd point). This was followed by the examination of the same points in the 5th ICS (3rd and 4th points). The following step was to measure the distance of these points from the ventral border of the thorax, and also that between the 2nd and the 4th points. On the right side the same procedure was used in the 4th ICS only. Mean values/standard errors (in cm) of absolute values of differences between percussional and echocardiographic measurements were as follow. Left side, 4th ICS, dorsal border: 0.8/0.1; ventral border: 0.7/0.1; 5th ICS, dorsal border: 0.8/0.1, ventral border: 0.9/0.2; right side, 4th ICS, dorsal border: 0.8/0.2; ventral border: 0.7/0.1. Due to the close correlation between the results of the two techniques, it is reasonable to consider cardiac percussion as an integrated part of the physical examination.     

Equine thoracoscopy: normal anatomy and surgical technique

Six normal, healthy horses age 3-10 years underwent left and right thoracoscopic examination using a rigid telescope. A minimum of 30 days was allowed between procedures. Horses were restrained in stocks and sedated with a continuous detomidine infusion. After surgical preparation of the hemithorax elected for surgery, and administration of local or regional anaesthesia of the surgery sites, thoracoscopy was completed during two 15 min pneumothorax periods. During the procedures, the thoracic structures were viewed using a 57 cm, 10 mm diameter, 30 degrees rigid telescope connected to a digital camcorder to allow computer capture of digital images. The telescope was inserted into the thoracic cavity via 3 different intercostal spaces. The 8th, 10th and 12th intercostal spaces were randomly selected and used among horses. The exploration of each hemithorax started from the dorsal-caudal quadrant continued toward the cranial thorax and was completed by observing the diaphragmatic and caudal pulmonary region. Collapsed lung, aorta, oesophagus and diaphragm were viewed readily in either hemithorax. On exploration of the right hemithorax, the azygos vein, thoracic duct and pulmonary veins were also identified. Horses tolerated thoracoscopy well. Signs of discomfort, such as increased respiratory rate, coughing and decreased level of sedation, were associated with lung collapse in one horse, with pneumothorax on 2 occasions, and when the thorax was approached through the 8th intercostal space. Surgery performed via the 8th intercostal space was hindered by the rigidity of the 8th and 9th ribs, and by the presence of a greater musculature, which did not allow easy cranial and caudal movements of the telescope.     

Ultrasonographic findings in horses with right dorsal colitis: five cases (2000-2001)

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether ultrasonography would be useful in the diagnosis of right dorsal colitis in horses. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 5 horses with right dorsal colitis and 15 healthy adult horses. PROCEDURE: Mural thickness and appearance of the right dorsal colon were determined from ultrasonographic images obtained at right intercostal spaces 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. RESULTS: The right dorsal colon could be imaged most consistently at the right 11th, 12th, and 13th intercostal spaces, below the margin of the lung and axial to the liver. Mural thickness measured from ultrasonographic images was significantly greater in horses with right dorsal colitis than in healthy horses. The right dorsal colon in affected horses had a prominent hypoechoic layer associated with submucosal edema and inflammatory infiltrates. Successful treatment of 1 horse with right dorsal colitis was associated with a decrease in mural thickness coincident with an increase in serum albumin and total protein concentrations and weight gain. A decrease in mural thickness was also observed in a second horse treated for right dorsal colitis that was not associated with healing of the right dorsal colon or an increase in serum albumin concentration but rather thinning of a segment of the right dorsal colon that eventually ruptured. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that ultrasonographic measurement of mural thickness and evaluation of the appearance of the right dorsal colon may be useful in the diagnosis of right dorsal colitis in horses.     

RADIOGRAPHIC QUANTIFICATION OF TRACHEAL DIMENSIONS OF THE NORMAL THOROUGHBRED HORSE

Radiographic measurement of tracheal dimensions in the horse may be useful in evaluating upper and lower respiratory tract conditions due to the gradient of pressure changes between these areas. Lateral radiographs of the trachea of 15 normal sedated Thoroughbred horses were made at inspiration and expiration and magnification-corrected mean airway heights measured were, respectively: larynx: 5.89 and 5.86 cm; trachea at the third cervical vertebra (C3): 4.17 and 4.04 cm; at the fifth cervical vertebra (C5): 3.62 and 3.59 cm; at the first thoracic vertebra (T1): 3.4 and 3.23 cm; and carina: 3.85 and 4.12 cm. The ratio of airway height to nearby vertebral body lengths, at inspiration and expiration were, respectively: laryngeal height at C3: 0.56 and 0.56; tracheal height at C3: 0.4 and 0.39; at C5: 0.37 and 0.37; at T1: 0.59 and 0.59; and carina height: 0.91 and 0.94. The ratio of tracheal height to the thoracic inlet at inspiration and expiration was, respectively, 0.15 and 0.15. There was not a statistically significant association between airway diameter and phase of respiration. No association was found between tracheal height and body mass or height at the withers. Radiographic tracheal height can be measured independent of respiratory phase in sedated horses. It is suggested that the ratio of tracheal height to an adjacent bony landmark is more reliable for comparison between horses and tracheal height measurement should be made at C5, due to a lower standard deviation. If only thoracic radiographs are made, measurements of tracheal height at the thoracic inlet may be valuable.     

Transcutaneous ultrasonographic evaluation of gastric distension with fluid in horses

OBJECTIVE: To develop a transcutaneous ultrasonography (TUS) method for measuring the location of the stomach during various levels of fluid distension and evaluate any correlation between gastric fluid distension and stomach position. ANIMALS: 6 adult horses. PROCEDURES: Known volumes of water were administered in 2 trials. In trial 1, the stomach was evaluated prior to and after the administration of 2, 4, and 6 L of water. In trial 2, the stomach was evaluated after administration of 6, 8, 10, and 12 L of water. The TUS was performed at the 7th through 16th left intercostal spaces (ICSs). For each volume of water, an image was captured at the most dorsal point in each ICS where the dorsolateral aspect of the stomach wall was viewed. The distance between this point and a horizontal line drawn on the skin at the level of the elbow joint was measured. The measurements at all ICSs were used to estimate the gastric wall height at ICS 12, which was subsequently evaluated for statistical association with volume administered. RESULTS: Significant correlation between the estimated height of the stomach wall at ICS 12 and the volume of fluid administered was detected. A regression equation to estimate gastric fluid volume when initial values for gastric wall height (cm) at ICS 12 and fluid volume (L) are known was developed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that use of TUS for gastric fluid volume estimation is a potentially useful technique.     

Electromyography of some respiratory muscles in the horse

To investigate activity in respiratory muscles, insulated wire electrodes were used to record electromyographic activity in the costal diaphragm and in the intercostal, serratus ventralis, internal abdominal oblique, transversalis and rectus abdominis muscles in conscious horses and in the same animals when anaesthetised. Electromyographic activity was related to respiratory phases as recorded by a stethograph around the chest wall. The costal diaphragm showed tonic and inspiratory activity in both conscious and anaesthetised animals. The principal muscle actively involved in expiration was the transversalis muscle. Intercostal muscle activity, and any increased activity in the second part of either inspiration or expiration recorded in the conscious animal, was absent under anaesthesia. The very marked tonic activity found in the serratus ventralis muscle in standing horses disappeared during anaesthesia. It was concluded that any stabilisation of the chest wall contributed by activity in the serratus ventralis and intercostal muscles in conscious, standing horses is greatly reduced during anaesthesia.     

Thoractic radiographic appearance during lung inflation in neonatal calves

The effect of lung inflation on thoracic radiographic anatomy was determined in seven anesthetized calves less than one week of age. Radiographs were taken with the calves in dorsoventral (DV), ventrodorsal (VD), left and right lateral recumbency at functional residual capacity (FRC), at half inflation of the lung and at total lung capacity (TLC). Lung volumes were maintained by positive pressure ventilation. Increases in areas and linear dimensions during lung inflation were not uniform, being greatest in the caudal and especially the caudal ventral regions of the thorax. With inflation, heart size decreased and the heart shadow moved cauded as the diaphragm flattened. When the calf was shifted from the DV to the VD position, the heart displaced toward the left thoracic wall. Lung areas were larger on VD than on DV projections with the right lung being larger than the left. On lateral radiographs the most reliable, easily observed indication of the stage of lung inflation was the area bounded by the vena cava, the caudal heart border and the diaphragm. On the DV or VD radiographs the transthoracic width at the diaphragm was the best indicator of the degree of lung inflation.     

Echocardiography of the normal bovine heart: technique and ultrasonographic appearance

Fifty-one clinically healthy cows were examined ultrasonographically from the third and fourth intercostal spaces on both sides of the thorax. A 3.0 MHz transducer was used and the heart was examined in the caudal long, caudal short and cranial long axes on the right side, and in the caudal and cranial long axes on the left side. In each position the optimal transducer orientation and the images of the structures were recorded. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the right (transducer positioned at the fourth intercostal space), all four chambers were visible with the transducer positioned 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the level of the olecranon. The left ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the aortic valve and ascending aorta, were visible in the same position with the transducer rotated 10 to 40 degrees clockwise. In the caudal short axis view of the heart on the right, the left and right ventricles were visible in cross-section with the transducer held at right angles to the ribs in the fourth intercostal space, 3 to 6 cm dorsal to the olecranon and tipped slightly dorsally. In the cranial long axis view of the heart on the right, the right ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the pulmonary valve and pulmonary artery, was visible in the third intercostal space, 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the olecranon with the transducer angled craniodorsally and rotated 10 to 20 degrees clockwise. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the left, the left and right ventricles and the left ventricular outflow tract were visible with the transducer placed in the fourth intercostal space. In the cranial long axis view on the left, the right ventricular outflow tract was visible.     

ULTRASONOGRAPHIC FINDINGS IN 13 HORSES WITH LYMPHOMA

Ultrasonography and radiography are commonly used for staging of lymphoma in horses, however there is little published information on imaging characteristics for horses with confirmed disease. The purpose of this retrospective, case series study was to describe ultrasonographic and radiographic findings for a group of horses with a confirmed diagnosis of lymphoma. A total of 13 horses were sampled. Lymphadenopathy (8/13), peritoneal effusion (6/13), splenic (6/13), and hepatic (5/13) lesions were the most frequently identified. The predominant splenic and hepatic ultrasonographic lesions were hypoechoic nodules, organomegaly, and changes in echogenicity. Digestive tract lesions were detected in three horses and these included focal thickening and decreased echogenicity of the small (2/13) and large intestinal (2/13) wall. Thoracic lesions were predominantly pleural effusion (4/13), lymphadenopathy (4/13), and lung parenchymal changes (3/13). Enlarged lymph nodes were detected radiographically (4/13) and/or ultrasonographically (2/13) in the thorax and ultrasonographically in the abdomen (7/13) and in the caudal cervical region (4/13). Findings supported the use of abdominal and thoracic ultrasonography for lymphoma staging in horses. Ultrasound landmarks for localizing cecal and caudal deep cervical lymph nodes were also provided.     

Reference ranges and reliability of transabdominal ultrasonographic renal dimensions in thoroughbred horses

The aims of this study were to establish a normal reference range (mean ± 2 SD) and assess reliability of renal dimensions obtained using transabdominal ultrasonography in Thoroughbred horses (n = 7). A minimum of three ultrasonographic cineloops were obtained from each intercostal space and the left paralumbar fossa by two observers daily for three consecutive days. Renal length, width, and thickness and cortex, medulla, and pelvic dimensions were obtained. Measurements were undertaken by both observers, who were unaware of prior measurements, to assess reproducibility and measured on three separate occasions to evaluate short-term measurement repeatability. Measurements from images obtained by both operators were compared to evaluate image repeatability. The left kidney was consistently identified in the left 15th-17th intercostal space and the paralumbar fossa with maximal length in the 16th intercostal space (12.7 ± 2.0 cm) and maximal width in the paralumbar fossa (7.9 ± 1.1 cm). The right kidney was consistently identified in the right 15th-17th intercostal space with maximal length and maximal width in the 15th intercostal space (16.0 ± 0.7 cm and 7.9 ± 1.0 cm). Reproducibility, image repeatability, measurement repeatability were good to excellent, although were less good for the smaller structures. There were no differences in renal dimensions between horses. Overall renal ultrasonography was reliable and a normal reference range for Thoroughbred horses was established. Renal dimensions vary between rib spaces. As repeatability and reproducibility were excellent for renal length and width, it may be prudent to use those measurements in rib spaces where parameters were maximal.     

Pneumothorax in horses: 40 cases (1980-1997)

OBJECTIVE: To characterize pneumothorax in horses and to describe clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and clinical outcome of horses with pneumothorax. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 40 horses. PROCEDURE: Medical records of horses with pneumothorax were reviewed to obtain information on signalment, history, clinical signs, diagnostic testing, treatment, and clinical outcome. RESULTS: Horses developed pneumothorax secondary to pleuropneumonia (17 horses), open wounds of the thorax (9), closed trauma to the thorax (7), surgery on the upper portion of the respiratory tract (3), and surgery involving the thoracic cavity (1); 3 horses had pneumothorax of unknown cause. Clinical signs included tachypnea, dyspnea, cyanosis, lack of lung sounds on auscultation of the dorsal aspect of the thorax, fever, tachycardia, signs of depression or anxiousness, and cough. Radiography and ultrasonography were useful to definitively diagnose pneumothorax. Pneumothorax was bilateral in 47.5% (19/40) and unilateral in 42.5% (17/40) of horses; designation of unilateral versus bilateral was not recorded in the remaining 4 horses. Horses with pneumothorax secondary to pleuropneumonia more commonly had unilateral pneumothorax (64.7% for unilateral vs 29.4% for bilateral; not specified for 1 horse). Horses with pneumothorax secondary to pleuropneumonia were less likely to survive than horses with pneumothorax secondary to other causes (35.3 vs 69.6% survived, respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pleuropneumonia is an important cause of pneumothorax in horses. Classic clinical signs of pneumothorax may not be evident. Radiography, ultrasonography, or both may be required for diagnosis. Prognosis for survival is better for horses with pneumothorax not associated with pleuropneumonia.     

Congenital cardiac disease in dogs

Thoracic conformation, age, amount of body fat, and stage of respiration and cardiac contraction affect the cardiac silhouette. Deep-chested dogs have an upright, narrow cardiac silhouette about 2 1/2 intercostal spaces wide, while barrel-chested dogs have a round, wide silhouette about 3 1/2 intercostal spaces wide. On LAT films the vessels to a lung lobe should be of equal size and 0.25-1.2 times the diameter of the upper third of the 4th rib at the 4th intercostal space. On DV projections, vessels to the caudal lung lobe should be no larger than the diameter of the 9th rib. Signs of right ventricular enlargement include loss of the cranial waist, increased width of the cardiac silhouette, increased sternal contact of the heart, and an elevated cardiac apex. Signs of left ventricular enlargement include an elevated carina, loss of the caudal waist, and a more perpendicular caudal cardiac border. Signs of left atrial enlargement include separation of mainstem bronchi, compression of the bronchus to the left caudal lung lobe, and an increased distance from the carina to the dorsal border of the caudal vena cava. Enlargement of the aorta and main pulmonary artery segment on a LAT view appears as a soft tissue density obscuring the cranial waist. Pulmonary vascular fields are usually hypervascular in patent ductus arteriosus and interventricular septal defects, normal in uncomplicated aortic or pulmonic stenosis, and hypovascular in tetralogy of Fallot.     

Ultrasonographic evaluation of tracheal collapse in dogs

Tracheal ultrasonography was performed to measure the width of the tracheal ring shadow and to assess the clinical relevance of these measurements for identifying tracheal collapse. The first tracheal ring width (FTRW) and thoracic inlet tracheal ring width (TITRW) were measured on both expiration and inspiration. The mean of the FTRW width (129 dogs) was greater in expiration (10.97 ± 1.02 mm, p = 0.001) than that in inspiration (9.86 ± 1.03 mm). For 51 normal dogs, the mean of the TITRW width was greater in expiration (9.05 ± 1.52 mm, p = 0.001) than in inspiration (8.02 ± 1.43 mm). For 78 tracheal collapse dogs, the mean of the TITRW width was greater in expiration (15.89 ± 1.01 mm, p = 0.001) than in inspiration (14.85 ± 1.17 mm). The TITRW/FTRW ratio of the normal dogs was higher (p = 0.001) in expiration (0.81 ± 0.09) than that in inspiration (0.79 ± 0.10). When compared between the normal and tracheal collapse dogs, the TITRW/FTRW ratio was also increased (p = 0.001) both in expiration (1.54 ± 0.09) and inspiration (1.47 ± 0.08), respectively. Based on these results, the cutoff level of the TITRW/FTRW ratio was statistically analyzed according to the receiver operating characteristic curve and it could be set at 1.16 in expiration and at 1.13 in inspiration. We have demonstrated that tracheal ultrasonography is a useful technique for the evaluation of tracheal collapse and it can be a supportive tool together with the radiographic findings for making the correct diagnosis.     

Ultrasonography of the spleen,liver, gallbladder,caudal vena cava and portal vein in healthy calves from birth to 104?days of age

Background

Many of the ultrasonographic abdominal findings of adult cattle probably also apply to calves. However, significant changes associated with ruminal growth and transition from a milk to a roughage diet occur in young calves during the first few months, and it can be expected that ultrasonographic features of organs adjacent to the rumen such as spleen and liver also undergo significant changes. These have not been investigated to date and therefore the goal of this study was to describe ultrasonographic findings of the spleen, liver, gallbladder, caudal vena cava and portal vein in six healthy calves from birth to 104 days of age. Standing calves were examined ultrasonographically six times at three-week intervals starting on the first or second day of life using a 5.0-MHz transducer and techniques described previously.

Results

The spleen was imaged on the left at the 5th to 12th intercostal spaces. The dorsal and ventral visible limits ran from cranioventral to caudodorsal because of superimposition of the lungs. The size of the spleen was largest at the 7th and 8th intercostal spaces and the maximum thickness was measured at the 9th to 12th intercostal spaces. The liver was seen in all calves on the right and could be imaged at the 5th to 12th intercostal spaces and the area caudal to the last rib. Similar to the spleen, the dorsal visible margin of the liver ran parallel to the ventral border of the lungs. The visible size of the liver was largest at the 8th to 11th intercostal spaces and the maximum thickness was measured at the 8th and 9th intercostal spaces. The parenchymal pattern consisted of numerous fine echoes homogeneously distributed over the entire organ. The gallbladder was most commonly seen at the 9th intercostal space and was circular, oval or pear-shaped on ultrasonograms. It extended beyond the ventral border of the liver depending on the amount of bile. The caudal vena cava was triangular in cross section but sometimes had a round or oval profile and was always seen in at least one intercostal space. The maximum circumference was measured at the 10th and 11th intercostal spaces. The portal vein was circular or oval in cross section and was characterised by stellate ramifications branching into the liver parenchyma. The portal vein could always be imaged at the 7th to 11th intercostal spaces and its mean diameter at the 9th to 11th intercostal spaces ranged from 1.2 cm to 1.8 cm.

Conclusions

The ultrasonographic findings of the spleen, liver, gallbladder, caudal vena cava and portal vein in six healthy Holstein-Friesian calves from birth to 104 days of age serve as reference values for the examination of these anatomical structures in diseased calves.     

The effect of respiratory activity on the QRS complex in the ECG in clinically healthy horses and horses with chronic lung diseases

Interrelations between respiration and changes in amplitudes of the QRS-complex of the ECG of horses were investigated. The value of the R-vector and both its components Rx and Ry decrease during inspiration and increase in the expiration phase. It means, that the R-waves in leads from cranial to caudal (y, II, aVF) and from right to left (I) become smaller with inspiration and larger with expiration. The difference of the amplitudes may be important, especially in horses with respiratory problems, so that it has to be noted when evaluating electrocardiograms. For that purpose it is not necessary to draw respiratory curves. It is proposed to evaluate the heart-cycle with the largest R-wave (expiration) only when there are differences in the R-amplitudes. Pulmonary air content is discussed as a possible cause.     

Cardiac measurements on thoracic radiographs of cats

Measurements of the heart and thorax were made on lateral and ventrodorsal thoracic radiographs of normal cats. The degree of correlation between selected cardiac and thoracic measurements was determined. Absolute measurements and ratios of measurements in normal cats and in cats with certain cardiac diseases were compared and their diagnostic value was evaluated. It was concluded that on the lateral thoracic radiograph the ratio of the cranio-caudal width of the heart to the distance between the cranial border of the fifth rib and the caudal border of the seventh rib was a highly reliable indicator of cardiac enlargement. On the ventro-dorsal radiograph the ratio of the maxium width of heart to the width of the thorax at the same level was the best indicator of increases in cardiac size.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the spleen in 30 goats

The ultrasonographic appearance, location and size of the spleen in 30 healthy female Saanen goats are described. The intercostal spaces of the left thoracic wall were scanned with a 5.0 MHz linear transducer in standing goats. The appearance of the splenic parenchyma, the position of the ultrasonographically visible dorsal and ventral margins of the spleen and the distance between them, the thickness of the spleen and the diameter of the splenic vessels were determined. The spleen could be visualised in at least one examination position and it always lay between the rumen and abdominal wall. The spleen bordered the lung dorsally and was located adjacent to the left abdominal wall in the last intercostal space and area immediately caudal to the last rib. The spleen had an echogenic capsule, and its parenchyma showed a homogenous fine echotexture / echo pattern throughout the whole visible part of the spleen. The splenic vessels were seen within the parenchyma. The visible dorsal margin of the spleen ran from cranioventral to caudodorsal. The distance from the dorsal margin of the spleen to the midline of the back was greatest in the 8th intercostal space (19.7 ± 4.19 cm) and smallest in the region immediately caudal to the last rib (7.0 ± 1.07 cm). The size of the spleen was smallest in the 8th intercostal space (3.1 ± 1.24 cm) and greatest in the 11th intercostal space (8.7 ± 2.78 cm). The thickness of the spleen ranged from 2.2 ± 1.14 cm caudal to the last rib to 6.4 ± 1.78 cm in the 11th intercostal space.