A numerical classification system for cleft lip and palate in the dog

An easy‐to‐use classification that enables an accurate record of canine cleft lip and palate is fundamental for effective communication between professionals and researchers and optimal use of published information. Here we present how a classification system for human cleft lip and palate can be used to register spontaneous cases in dogs, highlighting its advantages. This system is based on four topographic areas with a numerical representation of the severity of the cleft in each area. The use of spontaneous cases has the advantage of providing clefts that are naturally similar to their human counterparts for surgical, genetic and genomic studies and, furthermore, will reduce the need for experimental models of this condition.     

Cleft Palate in a Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)

A 5-month-old female chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) was evaluated for failure to thrive, difficulty drinking, and respiratory signs. Physical examination demonstrated a thin body condition score, purulent nasal and ocular discharge, and an abnormal facial appearance. Endoscope-guided oral examination and computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated a cleft soft palate, absent nasal turbinates, and bilateral otitis media. The animal was euthanized and necropsy confirmed the diagnosis of palatoschisis (cleft palate) of the soft palate. Other relevant postmortem findings included otitis media, interna, and externa, bony bullae proliferative changes, absent nasal turbinates and rhinosinusitis. Congenital abnormalities are rarely reported in chinchillas. While cleft palates have been reported in many other domestic animals, there are no published reports of this condition in chinchillas to the best of the authors’ knowledge.     

CONGENITAL RESPIRATORY TRACT DEFECTS IN LAMBS

One hundred and forty-seven newborn lambs with congenital defects of the respiratory tract were examined during a 3-year investigation into the causes of perinatal lamb mortality. Respiratory defects were found in 3.3% of the 4,417 lambs examined and in one-third (36.6%) of the 401 congenitally malformed lambs. All the defects were secondary to other more extensive malformations. The upper respiratory tract was involved 3 times more than the lower tract. Males were involved more than females (4:3). The upper tract defects were harelip, cleft palate, atelorrhinia, arrhinia, proboscis, fused nostrils and choanal atresia. One of the facial clefts was a rare median harelip associated with cleft palate and fused nostrils. The lower tract defects were pulmonary agenesis, hypoplasia and duplication. The 2 most common defects were choanal atresia and secondary pulmonary hypoplasia. It was concluded that primary defects of the respiratory tract of sheep are rare and that secondary defects are relatively common.     

Anatomy of the Canine Skull in Low-grade Otocephaly

An inherited low-grade otocephaly in a strain of Beagles was studied. All cases were “mild” with partial agnathia a constant feature in the adult animal. One case of high-grade otocephaly with aprosopus was recorded in an outcrossed animal. Neonatal mortalities in the low-grade type were associated with gross patency of the parietal fontanelle and hydrocephaly. Enlarged lateral ventricles were found in adult dogs, associated with incomplete union of the cranial sutures and occasional membranous-like paietal bone replacement over the patent fontanelle. Partial agnathia was not obvious in the neonate, but became apparent during postnatal skeletal development. The major anatomical differences in the skulls of these dogs were compared with normal Beagles. Malocclusion of the lower mandible and teeth against the upper jaw during development may have resulted in changes in length and width of the upper jaw and certain cranial structures. It was thought that the maloccluding lower jaw acted as a wedge against the upper jaw during mastication and these abnormal pressures, transmitted in an upward, forward, and outward direction, caused lengthening and widening of the palatine and temporal bones, and lengthening of the premaxilla and nasal bones. The nasopharyngeal meatus and palatine fissures were narrower and elongated. The pterygoid processes were pulled into a more horizontal position. It was suggested that a primary inherited abnormality may cause secondary changes in contiguous structures during development, and differentiation between primary (genetic) and secondary (acquired) anatomical abnormalities should be considered.     

同源异型框基因Prrx功能的研究进展

同源异型框（homeobox,HoX）基因是具有较高遗传等级并能控制细胞分化和形态发育的重要基因。同源异型框基因主要在胚胎时期高度表达,对胚胎的发育、分化及对肢体结构和器官发育有重要影响。同源异型框基因Prrx主要包括3种,分别是Prrx1、Prrx2和Prrx3。Prrx基因家族在人和鼠的腭裂、颌骨、四肢、胫腓骨的组织发育中有重要作用,并与大脑、脊髓、神经、心脏等器官的发育密切相关。其中Prrx1和Prrx2基因主要参与胚胎中骨骼和心血管系统的发育,如四肢、颅面、软骨和动脉管。Prrx3基因主要参与胚胎中骨、软骨、大脑、脊髓等的发育。文章针对Prrx基因的功能进行概述,以期为这些基因功能的研究及相关疾病的防控提供一定的参考。     

Research Progress on Functions of Homeobox Gene Prrx

The homeobox (HoX) gene that controls cell differentiation and morphological development is an important gene having highly genetic level. These genes highly express in the embryonic period and affect the embryonic development and differentiation and control the development of body structure and organs. The homeobox gene Prrx includes three types, Prrx1, Prrx2 and Prrx3, this family gene plays an important role in the development of cleft palate, jaw, extremities, tibia and fibula in human and mouse, and is also closely related to the development of the brain, spinal cord, nerve, heart and other organs. The Prrx1 and Prrx2 are mainly involved in the development of bone and cardiovascular system in embryo, such as limb, craniofacial, cartilage and arteries, and Prrx3 is mainly involved in the development of embryonic cartilage, bone, brain, spinal cord and so on. This paper reviewed the functions of Prrx gene, so as to provide certain references for research on the gene functions and prevention and control of related diseases.     

Clinical characteristics of horses and foals diagnosed with cleft palate in a referral population: 28 cases (1988–2011)

The objective of this case series was to characterize the population, case presentations, and outcomes of 28 equids diagnosed with cleft palate over a 25-year period. The incidence of cleft palate was 0.04%. The median age at presentation was 2 mo (range: 1 d to 3 y). Fifty percent of the animals were < 2 mo old, 21% were ≥ 2 mo but < 1 y old, and 29% were 1 y of age or older. Males and females were nearly equally represented. Short-term outcomes included euthanasia in 50%, surgical repair in 11%, supportive care in 4%, and no treatment in 32% of cases; 46% of the animals survived to discharge. Defects involving both the hard and soft palate and/or aspiration pneumonia generally had less favorable outcomes. Though cleft palate is rare in horses, it should be considered as a differential diagnosis in horses of all ages with nasal discharge, a cough, a history of recurrent respiratory infections, poor growth, or chronic submandibular lymphadenopathy. Endoscopic evaluation of the pharynx may aid in earlier diagnosis and prognostication for owners.     

Canine nasal septum deviation can be a normal variation and correlates with increasing skull indices

Nasal septal deviation has been studied in relation to nasal pathology and mass effect in dogs. The purpose of this retrospective, cross‐sectional study was to compare the prevalence of nasal septal deviation in dogs with rhinitis, neoplasia, and those without nasal pathology based on the facial index, skull index, and cranial index. Computed tomographic studies of the nasal cavities of dogs performed over a 5‐year period were retrospectively reviewed. This study had 233 dogs meeting the inclusion criteria with 135 dogs with no nasal pathology, 63 dogs with nasal neoplasia, and 35 dogs with rhinitis. The prevalence of nasal septal deviation, the angle, maximum distance, and longitudinal extent of deviation were recorded, as well as measurements to calculate the facial index, cranial index, and skull index. The results showed no difference in the prevalence of nasal septal deviation between dogs with nasal pathology and those without. The mean longitudinal extent of deviation and maximum distance of deviation was statistically greater for those with neoplasia compared to those with rhinitis and without nasal pathology. The longitudinal extent of deviation was inversely proportional to the cranial index, facial index, and skull index. The angle of deviation was directly proportional to the facial index and skull index. In conclusion, nasal septal deviation is an anatomic variant in different breeds of dogs with no predilection based on nasal pathology. Nasal septal deviation should be interpreted cautiously in the assessment of canine nasal disease.     

一例圈养繁殖马来穿山甲畸形仔兽

2012年10月2日,华南师范大学穿山甲人工驯养与繁育研究基地一头圈养条件下受孕的马来穿山甲产出一例畸形仔兽,产出时仔兽已没有生命体征,体重90 g,体长24.1 cm,雄性;幼仔头部多个器官畸形:隐眼,外耳发育不全,双侧唇腭裂,额顶部右侧有明显的凸起,身体其他部分发育正常;已制成标本保存于华南师范大学生命科学学院。认为此仔兽畸形可能与母兽的营养改变、疾病或药物使用等因素有关。本案例对今后妊娠期的穿山甲母兽饲养管理、疾病治疗以及保育工作有一定的启示和指导作用。     

Developmental Abnormalities of the Canine Skull

Fox, M. W., The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine. Developmental Abnormalities of the Canine Skull.

Prognathism of the upper jaw and partial agnathia of the lower jaw and related disorders including dental anomalies, palatitis, and otocephaly are described. Similarly, secondary or concurrent anomalies associated with brachygnathism are discussed where an excess of soft tissue in proportion to the size of the upper jaw and facial (brachyfacial) area may cause a variety of clinical conditions. The higher incidence of neoplasia of the CNS in brachycephalic dogs may be related to reduction in cranial capacity in proportion to brain volume and pressure changes are less easily compensated in the brachygnathic breeds.

     

Congenital Glossocheilognathoschisis and Persistent Frenula Linguae in a Foal: A Case Report

This paper describes clinical findings and surgical treatment of a foal with multiple craniofacial defects (glossocheilognathoschisis; congenital midline cleft of the lower lip, mandible and tongue combined with bilateral persistent frenula linguae) admitted to the Surgery Clinics of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Kafkas, Turkey. A thorough clinical examination revealed cleft of the lower lip and mandible combined with glossoschisis (glossocheilognathoschisis) and bilateral extensive and restrictive membranous band (frenula) of tissue at the base of the tongue. Physical examination and radiography of the other organs and tissues of the foal were within normal limits. After sedation and general anesthesia, the persistent frenulas on the right and left parts of the tongue were transected, starting from normal tongue tissue, with the scissors. The tongue was completely freed after the transection of the remaining part of the frenulum, where right and left frenulas united, and the accompanying mucosal tissue on the mandibular symphysis was removed and underlying bone tissue was superficially curetted. Cerclage wire was placed under the mucosa of the mandible and was then passed among two drilled holes below the two incisors. These two pieces of wire were twisted together and anchored over the labial surface of the mandibular symphysis junction. The mandibular symphysis was then stabilized after cerclage wire tensing. A nasogastric tube was placed to permit enteral feeding. The foal was discharged 5 days after surgery. Telephone follow-up revealed that the foal had died 15 days after the surgical intervention.     

CONGENITAL FACIAL INFILTRATIVE LIPOMA IN A CALF

The clinical and pathologic findings related to an infiltrative facial lipoma in a 5-month-old female Holstein Friesian calf are reported. The tumor was congenital, increased in size with time, and deformed the left side of the face and cranial bones. The clinical condition of the calf was good; the only detectable abnormalities were poor weight gain and decreased motility of the left upper lip. Clinical and radiologic data indicated the mass was not removable. Muscle and lymph node invasion by tumor tissue were detected histologically. Infiltrative lipoma is a rare variety of lipoma that has been reported in dogs, cats, horses, and humans. Although its cytologic characteristics are those of a benign tumor, in this patient the invasiveness of the neoplasm was associated with poor prognosis.     

Morphometric investigations of breed-specific features in feline skulls and considerations on their functional implications

A total of 17 parameters (nine lengths, four heights, four widths) was used to characterize the shape of the skull in a sample of 69 pure bred cats. Results of the discriminant analysis confirmed three phenotypically different skull formations, i.e. the round-shaped, the triangular and the cuneiform. Further statistical analyses revealed that the appearance of the skull was especially variable in the case of a round shape and that the lengths had been especially affected by these characteristics. The round shape of the brachycephalic skull was attributed to a reduction in length of the face and braincase as well. In many cases, this condition was associated with disproportional increase in height and width of the braincase and an increase in convexity of the calvaria. The decrease in length of the face was more pronounced at the dorsal surface of the nose than at the palate. Therefore, the inclination of the bony nasal aperture became flatter and the inclination of the maxilloturbinate became steeper. As a result, the ventral nasal meatus changed its direction twice. This condition might predispose to dyspnoea by restricting the air passageways within the nasal cavity. Round-shaped skulls were also associated with a decrease in facial width. Morphological variants that were frequently seen in round-shaped skulls include almost rectangular inclination of the nasal bone and more distant extension of the foramen magnum between the occipital condyles.     

Nasal planum reconstruction after tumour resection using a lip-to-nose flap in a dog

Here we describe the use of a novel lip-to-nose flap technique for nasal planum reconstruction after tumour removal in a dog. A mast cell tumour involving the nasal planum was first resected by removing the roof and the wing of the left nasal vestibule. An interpolation subdermal plexus flap was derived from the left caudal lip with vascular contribution from the lateral nasal artery. This lip-to-nose flap was rotated into the defect via a bridging incision. The mucocutaneous junction of the lip was used to emulate the keratinised nasal planum and the buccal mucosa was sutured to be congruent with the mucosa of the vestibule. This resulted in the lip-to-nose flap successfully closing the surgical defect and giving an aesthetic appearance similar to the original nasal planum.     

Quantification of nasal airflow resistance in English bulldogs using computed tomography and computational fluid dynamics

Stenotic nares, edematous intranasal turbinates, mucosal swelling, and an elongated, thickened soft palate are common sources of airflow resistance for dogs with brachycephalic airway syndrome. Surgery has focused on enlarging the nasal apertures and reducing tissue of the soft palate. However, objective measures of surgical efficacy are lacking. Twenty‐one English bulldogs without previous surgery were recruited for this prospective, pilot study. Computed tomography was performed using conscious sedation and without endotracheal intubation using a 128 multidetector computed tomography scanner. Raw multidetector computed tomography data were rendered to create a three‐dimensional surface mesh model by automatic segmentation of the air‐filled nasal passage from the nares to the caudal soft palate. Three‐dimensional surface models were used to construct computational fluid dynamics models of nasal airflow resistance from the nares to the caudal aspect of the soft palate. The computational fluid dynamics models were used to simulate airflow in each dog and airway resistance varied widely with a median 36.46 (Pa/mm)/(l/s) and an interquartile range of 19.84 to 90.74 (Pa/mm)/(/s). In 19/21 dogs, the rostral third of the nasal passage exhibited a larger airflow resistance than the caudal and middle regions of the nasal passage. In addition, computational fluid dynamics data indicated that overall measures of airflow resistance may significantly underestimate the maximum local resistance. We conclude that computational fluid dynamics models derived from nasal multidetector computed tomography can quantify airway resistance in brachycephalic dogs. This methodology represents a novel approach to noninvasively quantify airflow resistance and may have utility for objectively studying effects of surgical interventions in canine brachycephalic airway syndrome.     

RADIOGRAPHIC DETECTION OF DEFECTS OF THE NASAL BOUNDARIES

The sensitivity of conventional radiography for lesions of the cribriform plate, naso-orbital wall, lateral nasal wall and hard palate was investigated in 13 canine cadaver heads by creating measured defects in these structures. The location of the perforations were marked with a thin copper wire and the radiographic appearance of the defects was evaluated retrospectively by a single reviewer. Despite demarcation cribriform plate destruction of 2 mm could not be detected. Defects of 3 mm were detected in only 2 heads, 4 mm defects in 1 further head, an oblong 4 x 10 mm defect in 7 heads and in the remaining 3 heads only a 10 x 10 mm defect became visible as such. The naso-orbital wall had to be destroyed in its whole vertical length for detection of a defect in ventrodorsal or dorsoventral views. Therefore conventional radiography is of low diagnostic value for these lesions. Defects of 2 mm in the lateral nasal wall and the hard palate could be detected confidently in all heads indicating high sensitivity of conventional radiography. Soft tissue opacification did not alter the detectability of any nasal border structure lesion.     

Postanesthetic hemorrhagic myelopathy in a horse

Acute hemorrhagic myelopathy developed in the sixth cervical to the eighth thoracic spinal cord segments of a 1-year-old Quarter Horse colt that was castrated under general anesthesia while in dorsal recumbency. Clinical signs were consistent with severe transverse myelopathy caudal to the brachial enlargement and cranial to the lumbosacral enlargement of the spinal cord. Histologic examination of the spinal cord revealed hemorrhage in the gray matter, with multiple blood-filled clefts in otherwise normal neuropil. Hemodynamic changes in the spinal cord associated with anesthesia and dorsal recumbency may have led to hypoxic vessel damage, with massive hemorrhage after surgery, when the horse was returned to lateral recumbency. Postanesthetic hemorrhagic myelopathy is a possible complication of positioning in dorsal recumbency, during anesthesia, in rapidly growing, young horses.     

Pathogenesis of ovine pseudorabies (Aujeszky''s disease) following intratracheal inoculation.

Pseudorabies virus was inoculated intratracheally into sheep to investigate the pathogenesis of pseudorabies virus infection. Clinical signs of pyrexia, depression, frequent swallowing, facial fasciculations, chorea, excessive salivation, mild tympanites, labored breathing and focal pruritus were followed by death Macroscopic lesions were severe focal facial trauma, petechiae in cervicothoracic ganglia and dilated esophaguses. The medulla oblongata and the trigeminal, cranial cervical, cervicothoracic and parabronchial ganglia contained pseudorabies virus and pronounced nonsuppurative inflammatory changes. The neural distribution of lesions and virus suggests that the virus travelled from the respiratory mucosa to the central and sympathetic nervous system by two routes: 1) in the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the medulla oblongata and 2) in the postganglionic fibers to the sympathetic ganglia. The presence of virus in the nasal mucus indicated that horizontal transmission of pseudorabies virus may occur among sheep.