An integrated analysis of sulfur emissions,acid deposition and climate change

This paper presents one of the first integrated analyses of acidification and climate change on a geographically-detailed basis, and the first linkage of integrated models for acid deposition (RAINS) and for climate change (IMAGE 2). Emphasis in this paper is on Europe. Trends in driving forces of emissions are used to compute anthropogenic SO₂ emissions in 13 world regions. These emissions are translated into regional patterns of sulfur deposition in Europe and global patterns of sulfate aerosols using source-receptor matrices. Changes in climate are then computed based on changes in sulfate and greenhouse gases. Finally, we compute ecosystem areas affected by acid deposition and climate change based on exceedances of critical loads and changes in potential vegetation. Using this framework, information from global and regional integrated models can be used to link sulfur emissions with both their global and regional consequences. Preliminary calculations indicate that the size of European area affected by climate change in 2100 (58%) will be about the same as that affected by acid deposition in 1990. By the mid 21st century, about 14% of Europe's area may be affected by both acid deposition and climate change. Also, reducing sulfur emissions in Europe will have both the desirable impact of reducing the area affected by acid deposition, and the undesirable impact of enhancing climate warming in Europe and thus increasing the area affected by climate change. However, for the scenarios in this paper, the desirable impact of reducing sulfur emissions greatly outweighs its undesirable impact.     

The impact of nitrogen deposition on upland surface waters in Great Britain: A regional assessment of nitrate leaching

A national dataset of water chemistry collected for critical loads mapping is used to make a regional assessment of surface water nitrate concentrations in Great Britain. The primary data are dominated by high concentrations in lowland regions Where N inputs are dominated by non-atmospheric sources. Land cover data are used to screen out sites with potential catchment sources of N, allowing the evaluation of nitrate leaching due to atmospheric deposition alone. In the screened dataset several upland regions show elevated nitrate concentrations, notably Wales, the Pennines, Cumbria, Galloway and the Cairngorms, and there is a clear relationship between surface water nitrate and total N deposition.     

An analysis of wet deposition of sulfate using a trajectory model for East Asia

A long-range transport model for East Asia was developed to estimate the wet deposition of sulfate. The model is a trajectory type which is appropriate for long-term analysis. Trajectories of air masses are calculated by tracing the wind field which changes spatially and temporally. The processes of reactions, rainout removal, intake of sulfate in cloud water into rain water, and dry and wet depositions are considered. It is possible to calculate the concentration of sulfate in precipitation at a receptor by performing material balance in a grid box containing the receptor.The results obtained by the long-range transport model were evaluated through comparison with observation data of acidic deposition. The observation was conducted at 21 stations throughout Japan for one year. The calculated amount of wet deposition of sulfate in Japan was 0.22Tg/y in S equivalent, while the observed amount was 0.29Tg/y. The long-range transport model can predict almost 80% of observed wet deposition. The contributions of domestic anthropogenic sources and volcanic eruption to wet deposition of sulfate in Japan were estimated using the longrange transport model. The ratio of the deposition of sulfate due to Japanese anthropogenic sources to that due to the Asian continental sources was about 1 to 2. Since air stream from the direction of the Asian continent dominates during winter, the contribution of Japan to wet deposition in the region which faces the Sea of Japan amounted to less than 15%. The contribution of the sulfur oxides from volcanoes was about 20%.     

Global forest systems: An uncertain response to atmospheric pollutants and global climate change?

Forest systems cover more than 4.1×10⁹ ha of the Earth's land area. The future response and feedbacks of forest systems to atmospheric pollutants and projected climate change may be significant. Boreal, temperate and tropical forest systems play a prominent role in carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) biogeochemical cycles at regional and global scales. The timing and magnitude of future changes in forest systems will depend on environmental factors such as a changing global climate, an accumulation of CO₂ in the atmosphere, and increase global mineralization of nutrients such as N and S. The interactive effects of all these factors on the world's forest regions are complex and not intuitively obvious and are likely to differ among geographic regions. Although the potential effects of some atmospheric pollutants on forest systems have been observed or simulated, large uncertainty exists in our ability to project future forest distribution, composition and productivity under transient or nontransient global climate change scenarios. The potential to manage and adapt forests to future global environmental conditions varies widely among nations. Mitigation practices, such as liming or fertilization to ameliorate excess NO_x or SO_x or forest management to sequester CO₂ are now being applied in selected nations worldwide.The U.S. Government's right to a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Modeling studies on sulfur deposition and transport in East Asia

A three dimensional regional Eulerian model of sulfur deposition and tranport has been developed. It includes emission, transport, diffusion, gas-phase and aqeous-phase chemical process, dry depostion, rainout and washout process. A looking up table method is provided to deal with the gas-phase chemical process including sulfur transfer. Calculated values have reasonable agreement with observations. Distribution of sulfur deposition and transport in East Asia are also analyzed in the paper. Simulation shows that sulfate (SO ₄ ^2– ) is the main substance to transport in long range transport. Some amount of sulfur emission of different countries transport across boundaries, but the main origin of sulfur deposition in each country in East Asia is from herself. Furthermore, some transport paths on different layers and outlet or inlet zones are found.     

Sulphur and nitrogen deposition in Norway,status and trends

The total deposition of sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N) components in Norway during the period 1988–1992 has been estimated on the basis of measurement data of air- and precipitation chemistry from the national monitoring network. There are large regional variations in depositions with highest values in the southwestern part of Norway. Time series analysis of annual mean concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and sulphate (SO₄ ^––) in air, non marine SO₄ ^––, nitrate (NO₃ ^–) and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) in precipitation, shows a significant reduction in the S concentrations both in air and precipitation. In precipitation the concentrations are reduced by 30–45 percent in Southern Norway and 45–55 percent in Central and Northern Norway. Even larger reductions are observed in air concentrations with 50–65 percent reduction in Southern Norway and 65–88 percent reduction further north. For N components there are generally no significant trends in concentration levels nor in precipitation or air. The observed trends are comparable with reported trends in emission.     

Spatial variation in nitrogen deposition over five adjacent catchments in a larch forest

Abstract

In this report, we propose a new method of evaluating the effect of nitrogen deposition on forest ecosystems, namely the spatial variation in nitrogen deposition enables to detect readily the effect of anthropogenic N deposition on biogeochemical processes in forest ecosystems. We analyzed the nitrogen deposition (throughfall fluxes) and stream water chemistry over five adjacent small catchments in which soil types (Hapludants) and vegetation composition (50 to 60 years old larch plantation) were fairly identical. Thirty-two throughfall collectors were set up in the five catchments (six to eight collectors in each catchment) and throughfall samples were collected after a rain event, while stream water samples were collected once or twice a month. The monitoring was carried out during a period of 6 months (2002 June to 2002 November). Throughfall dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) fluxes were highly variable: the highest N input, 1.32 kg N ha^?1 6 months^?1, was sixty-six times higher than the lowest input, 0.02 kg N ha^?1 6 months^?1. The mean DIN inputs and the mean nitrate concentrations in streams showed a three-time variation across the five catchments. In addition, the DIN inputs showed a high correlation with the stream nitrate concentrations (r = 0.88).     

氮肥底追比例及施硫对小麦氮素吸收利用的调控

为明确氮肥底追比例与施硫间的互作效应,采用盆栽方式,以京冬8号和济麦20为供试材料,设置氮肥底追比例为3∶7(N_1)、5∶5(N_2)和7∶3(N_3)3个处理水平,每个底追比例下设置2个硫肥施用量:0kg·hm~(-2)(S0)和45kg·hm~(-2)(S_1),运用15N示踪技术研究开花期、成熟期营养器官及籽粒中氮素积累、分配以及对不同来源氮素利用的情况,同时对花后营养器官贮藏氮素的转运、对籽粒的贡献率及氮素利用效率进行分析比较。结果表明,2个小麦品种植株中积累氮素主要来自肥料氮,京冬8号成熟期来自肥料氮的积累量达60%~70%,而济麦20则达70%~80%。氮肥底追比例及硫肥互作对2个品种氮素吸收、转运和分配的影响存在差异,其中京冬8号成熟期籽粒氮素积累量、营养器官贮藏氮素花后的转运量、转运率、对籽粒的贡献率、籽粒产量以及氮肥的利用效率均在N_1S_0时较高;济麦20营养器官贮藏氮素花后的转运量、转运率、对籽粒的贡献率在N1S0时较高,而在N3S1时,成熟期籽粒氮素积累量、籽粒产量、氮肥的利用效率均较高。综上所述,本试验栽培环境下,氮肥底追比例为N1时能够提高花前贮藏氮素的转运量、转运率、对籽粒的贡献率、籽粒蛋白质含量及氮素收获指数;氮肥底追比例为N3时有利于提高籽粒产量、氮肥生产效率。综合考虑籽粒产量、氮肥生产效率、氮肥利用效率和氮素收获指数,京冬8号最优肥料组合为N_1S_0,济麦20最优肥料组合为N_3S_1。本研究结果为冬小麦大田生产中合理的肥料运筹提供了理论参考。     

Production and Emission of Nitrous Oxide and Responsible Microorganisms in Upland Acid Soil in Indonesia

Incubation and field experiments were conducted to determine emission and production of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and responsible microorganisms in an upland acid soil of Indonesia. The results showed that N₂O productions in the soil samples were affected by ammonium and urea amendments compared with control. N₂O production reached the highest peak at the first week then decreased until 4 weeks incubation in the potato and tea soil samples. However, more N₂O production was found in tea soil than potato soil. Pine forest soil produced N₂O more at second week incubation than first week, then decreased until 4 weeks. These results further confirmed that the N₂O emitted in the field, which was higher in tea garden than other fields. The both ammonium and nitrate contents in the tea soil were higher than potato and pine soils. The number of ammonium oxidizers in the pine and potato soils was not significantly different, but it was lower in the tea soil. Number of nitrite oxidizers was almost the same in the potato and tea soils, however it was lower in the pine soil. The number of denitrifiers was 1–3 orders magnitude higher in the tea soil than the potato and pine soils.     

Testing foliar nutritional changes in space and over time in greenhouse tomato

The aim of this trial was to study the spatial and temporal variability of the leaf nutrient concentration in tomato intensive crop under greenhouse, to know the number of sub-samples needed to be taken to obtain a representative sample and the influence by the position in the greenhouses. The experiment consisted on the selection of 20 sample points over the greenhouse with one tomato plant per sample point. One fully expanded leaf by sample point with an interval of a week were taken. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), and chloride (Cl) were determined in each sample. According to these results, N, P, K, S, Cl, and Na concentration showed no variation over the time. The spatial variability of N, P, and K could be related with the light intensity and yield. The suggested number of leaf sub-sample ranging from 25 to 126 depending on nutrient.     

辽宁大豆主产区土壤硫素状况及不同硫肥肥效研究

本文通过对辽宁省大豆主要产区(8个县)土壤全硫及有效硫含量进行测定与分析,阐述了不同类型、不同肥力土壤硫素状况。在不同地区开展的硫肥肥效试验结果表明,在有效硫含量很低的土壤上施用硫肥增产效果都很明显,而有效硫含量较高的土壤上施用硫铵增产效果较好,石膏和硫磺的增产效果不稳。     

Establishing an acid deposition monitoring network in East Asia

Acid deposition is widely recognized as one of the most serious international atmospheric pollution problems. East Asian countries are currently experiencing acid deposition and have only recently begun expanding domestic research and monitoring activities. However, acid deposition is not only a domestic but also a transboundary problem. In addressing the transboundary aspect, cooperative and collaborative action will be essential. The Environment Agency of Japan is advocating the need to establish an acid deposition monitoring network in East Asia. Therefore, it is sponsoring three Expert Meetings on Acid Precipitation Monitoring Network in East Asia between 1993 and 1995. The meetings are attended by both scientific researchers and government officials from numerous East Asian countries. At the administrative and scientific discussions of the first two meetings a consensus on the desirability of establishing a monitoring network in East Asia was obtained and a preliminary technical guideline manual for monitoring acid deposition was adopted. By the end of the third meeting it is hoped that a basic consensus can be reached on a framework for an East Asian acid deposition monitoring network. It is essential to establish such a network in order to evaluate the present state of acid deposition in the region and to reach a common scientific understanding on the acid deposition problem. This is a vital step toward promoting international cooperation on the issue.     

北方酸性水稻土上氮磷硅肥配施对水稻产量影响的研究

用盆栽的方法,采用三因素五水平D-饱和优化设计,以采自于辽宁东部的酸性水稻土为供试土壤。对氮、磷、硅肥用量与水稻产量之间的关系进行研究,建立了水稻产量函数模型;结果表明,氮、磷、硅肥均能显著地影响水稻产量,其作用大小依次为氮肥>磷肥>硅肥,获得最高产量的施肥方案N、P2O5和SiO2分别为0.248、0.129和0.0001g/kg土。     

Laboratory study of SO2 dry deposition on limestone and marble: Effects of humidity and surface variables

The dry deposition of gaseous air pollutants on stone and other materials is influenced by atmospheric processes and the chemical characteristics of the deposited gas species and of the specific receptor material. Previous studies have shown that relative humidity, surface moisture, and acid buffering capability of the receptor surface are very important factors. To better quantify this behavior, a special recirculating wind tunnel/environmental chamber was constructed, in which wind speed, turbulence, air temperature, relative humidity, and concentrations of several pollutants (SO₂, O₃, nitrogen oxides) can be held constant. An airfoil sample holder holds up to eight stone samples (3.8 cm in diameter and 1 cm thick) in nearly identical exposure conditions. SO₂ deposition on limestone was found to increase exponentially with increasing relative humidity (RH). Marble behaves similarly, but with a much lower deposition rate. Trends indicate there is little deposition below 20% RH on clean limestone and below 60% RH on clean marble. This large difference is due to the limestone's greater porosity, surface roughness, and effective surface area. These results indicate surface variables generally limit SO₂ deposition below about 70% RH on limestone and below at least 95% RH on marble. Aerodynamic variables generally limit deposition at higher relative humidity or when the surface is wet.     

Acidic deposition,ecosystem processes,and nitrogen saturation in a high elevation Southern Appalachian watershed

High-elevation red spruce-Fraser fir forests in the Southern Appalachian mountains: 1) receive among the highest rates of atmospheric deposition measured in North America, 2) contain old-growth forests, 3) have shown declines in forest health, 4) have sustained high insect-caused fir mortality, and 5) contain poorly buffered soils and stream systems. High rates of nitrogen and sulphur deposition (1900 and 2200 Eq·ha^–1·yr^–1, respectively) are dominated by dry and cloud deposition processes. Large leaching fluxes of nitrate-nitrogen (100–1400 Eq·ha^–1·yr^–1) occur within the soil profile. We have expanded the study to the watershed scale with monitoring of: precipitation, throughfall, stream hydrology, and stream chemistry. Two streamlets drain the 17.4 ha Noland Divide Watershed (1676–1920m) located in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. A network of 50 20x20 m plots is being used to assess stand structure, biomass, and soil nutrient pools. Nitrate is the predominant anion in the streamlets (weighted concentrations: 47 and 54 eq·L^–1 NO₃ ^–; 31 and 43 eq·L^–1 SO₄ ^2–). Watershed nitrate export is extremely high (1000 Eq·ha^–1 yr^–1), facilitating significant base cation exports. Stream acid neutralizing capacity values are extremely low (–10 to 20 eq·L^–1) and episodic acidifications (pH declines of a full unit in days or weeks time) occur. Annual streamwater sulfate export is on the order of 770 Eq·ha^–1yr^–1 or about one-third of total annual inputs, indicating there is net watershed sulfate retention. The system is highly nitrogen saturated (Stage 2, Stoddard, 1994) and this condition promotes both chronic and episodic stream acidification.     

小流域范围土壤锰、铝形态分布及其相关性研究

分别在湖南的郴州和长沙选定两小流域(SZY和LKS),从小流域规模分析了酸雨频降区两小流域土壤的主要理化特性和土壤锰铝形态及其分布,并讨论了锰铝各形态和土壤有机质,土壤pH值之间的相关性。结果表明:在小流域SZY土壤中,各种形态的锰铝含量均高于小流域LKS土壤中对应形态的锰铝含量;在同一剖面,各种形态的锰铝含量有表土高于底土的趋势。在两小流域土壤中,除无定形锰(Mnox)外各种形态的锰铝均与土壤有机质呈正相关。铝的溶出与土壤有机质和土壤pH值有关。酸沉降能影响毒性元素铝形态的转化和淋溶。活性铝、锰形态可能富集在土壤表层或植物根际等富含有机质的区域,酸沉降或其它环境条件可能促进铝、锰形态在土壤表层或植物根际的转化和溶出,从而导致毒害。     

氮肥施用时期对玉米后期叶绿体超微结构的影响

采用盆栽试验研究氮肥不同施用时期对玉米生长后期叶绿体超微结构的影响.结果表明,当氮肥分别在基施、拔节期与大喇叭口期1∶3∶1施用时,叶绿素含量最高,叶绿体和线粒体结构完整,基粒和基质片层结构丰富;当追肥次数逐渐减少直至不施氮肥时,叶绿素含量逐渐降低,叶绿体形状由长椭圆形趋于圆形,被膜不断破裂,片层结构由排列整齐变为混乱,线粒体膜被破坏,脊的数量减少.因此,合理地增加追肥次数能提高叶绿素含量,有效改善叶绿体的超微结构.     

Soil and Rice Responses to Phosphate Fertilizer in Two Contrasting Seasons on Acid Sulfate Soil

Acid sulfate soils (ASS) are characterized by low pH, aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe) toxicity and are typically deficient in phosphate (PO₄). The application of phosphorus (P) fertilizer could help reduce the level of exchangeable Al and Fe, thereby improving the rice growth and yield. Five levels of P (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 kg phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅)/ha) were tested with rice varieties MTL560 in the wet season and MTL480 in the dry season. The optimum rate of P was 60 kg P₂O₅/ha for rice in the dry season and 80 kg P₂O₅/ha in the wet season. Soil testing showed at the start of the season that there was sufficient P in the soil. At the end of the season there was a reduction in soil Al and Fe in plots that had P rates above 40 kg P₂O₅/ha. It is therefore likely that P application reduced Al and Fe toxicity through precipitation and formation of Al-P and Fe-P compounds, which boasted yield, rather amending a soil P deficiency.     

The status of wet deposition of nitrogen compounds in an intensive dairy farming area in central Japan

(pp. 47–52)

The wet deposition of nitrogen compounds in the intensive dairy farming area and its environs in the northern part of the Kanto region in central Japan was investigated from April 2003 to April 2005. Open-bulk samplers were used to collect open-bulk precipitation, which approximates the sum of wet and dry deposition. Furthermore, wet-only samplers were applied to collect the precipitation for every 1 mm in a rainfall, termed the wet sample. The concentrations of total nitrogen and ammonium ions in the open-bulk precipitation were high in the central part of the dairy farming area and low in the remote mountainous area more than 15 km away the concentrations were generally high during winter and spring, and low during summer and autumn. There was a large difference in the annual deposition of nitrogen between the farming area and the surrounding area. The annual deposition of nitrogen in the farming area was significantly high compared to the values of existing data in Japan and Europe. The concentrations of respective nitrogen compounds in the wet sample, which accounted for 40 of the total rainfalls events, were notably high at the beginning of precipitation and rapidly decreased by 8 mm of continuous precipitation. The nitrogen concentrations at the beginning of precipitation were high in the farming area, and relatively low in the surrounding area. It was thought that the cause of the large wet deposition in the farming area was due to ammonia emissions, mainly from cattle manure produced at dairy farms. The factors of the seasonal changes were considered to be the frequency and the amount of precipitation, and the change in ammonia emissions from manure management performed by dairy farmers.     

Assessment of critical loads in liuzhou,China using static and dynamic models

The project Comprehensive Control and Demonstration for Acid Deposition in Liuzbou area is a national key project in the 8th Five-year-plan, and the study on critical loads will provide scientific and quantitative accordance for formulating control strategy. In this paper, critical loads of acid deposition to soil in Lirzhou area, China, were calculated using the Steady State Mass Balance method (SMB and PROFILE) and dynamic modeling methods(MAGIC), based on data obtained from field investigations and physiochemical properties measured through experiments such as the organic content, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, sulfate adsorption capacity, gibbsite coefficient, biomass base cation uptake and selectivity coefficient for cations. Weathering rates necessary to calculate soil chemistry in applying SMB and MAGIC model were determined by computation with PROFILE using independent geophysical properties such as soil texture and mineralogy as the input data, or by the total soil base cation content correlation. The results have shown that the critical loads of acidity in this area are in the range of 0.7–6.0 keq ha^–1 yr^–1, indicating sulfur deposition should be cut down by 50–90 percent of the present level. The upper soil layer is the most sensitive. The maximum allowable deposition loading of this area is also presented in the paper.