The effects of minimal tillage and contour cultivation on surface runoff, soil loss and crop yield in the long-term Woburn Erosion Reference Experiment on sandy soil at Woburn, England

Abstract. Over a 10-year period, runoff and soil erosion on the plots of the Woburn Erosion Reference Experiment were concentrated in periods with sparse vegetation cover: in winter after the late planting of cereals; in spring after the planting of beets; or when soils were bare after harvest. The mean event runoff of 1.32 mm from plots cultivated up-and-downslope was significantly greater ( P <0.05) than that from plots cultivated across-slope (0.82 mm). However, mean event soil loss was not significantly different between the two cultivation directions. No significant differences were found between minimal and standard cultivations. Mean event runoff from the across-slope/minimal tillage treatment combination (0.58 mm) was significantly less ( P <0.01) than from the up-and-downslope/minimal tillage (1.41 mm), up-and-downslope/standard tillage (1.24 mm), and across-slope/standard tillage (1.07 mm) treatment combinations. Runoff from the across-slope/standard treatment combination was significantly ( P <0.05) less than from the up-and-downslope/minimal tillage treatment. The across-slope/minimal tillage treatment combination had a significantly smaller ( P <0.05) event soil loss (67 kg ha⁻¹) than the up-and-downslope/standard tillage (278 kg ha⁻¹) and up-and-downslope/minimal tillage (245 kg ha⁻¹) combinations. Crop yields were significantly ( P <0.05) higher on across-slope plots in 1988, 1996 and 1997 than on up-and-downslope plots, and were also higher (but not significantly) on the across-slope plots in 7 of the 8 remaining years. Minimal cultivation decreased yield compared with standard cultivation in one year only. We recommend that across-slope cultivation combined with minimal tillage be investigated at field scale to assess its suitability for incorporation into UK farming systems.     

Longterm effects of soil compaction and tillage on Collembola and straw decomposition in arable soil

Soil core samples were taken from May 1996 to October 1996 at four week intervals to assess the longterm effects of compaction due to soil tillage on Collembola in arable land. Two different tillage systems were studied: conservation tillage (CS) with rotary harrowing to 120 mm depth and conventional tillage (CT) with a mould board plough to 300 mm depth. Soil compaction was achieved by wheeling with graded loads: 0t, 2 × 2.5t and 6 × 5.0t (wheeling frequency × wheel load) in early spring 1995. Litter decomposition rate was investigated by the minicontainer-method, using two different mesh-sizes: 20 μm (excluding mesofauna) and 500 μ (including mesofauna). The substrate used was winter wheat straw, corresponding to the crop cultivated on the field.We recorded 25 species of Collembola. The abundance of Collembola during the growing season was at a minimum in June in both tillage systems. Thereafter, numbers of individuals increased, probably due to better nutrition. Mesaphorura krausbaueri s.l. was eudominant in CS. In CT Folsomia fimetaria and M. krausbaueri s.l. reached high abundances at the end of August. Harvesting and tilling supported population growth in CS, while numbers in CT decreased. The collembolan species showed different preferences in regard to the tillage system and the grade of compaction. During the first 4 weeks of exposure the decomposition rate of straw was highest. The decomposition rate in the minicontainers with 20 μm mesh-size was higher due to better moisture conditions for the microorganisms. After harvest and tilling the decomposition rate increased, especially in the CS-plots, because of aeration and incorporation of residues. Population fluctuation in the minicontainers was caused by migration of Collembola in response to changing moisture conditions. The main species in the minicontainers were large and mobile. Compared to the surrounding soil, species diversity was reduced.     

不同小麦种植体系中磺酰磺隆在土壤中的持久性研究

Many sulfonylurea herbicides have been used under a wide variety of agronomic conditions in numerous crops. An understanding of dissipation rate of herbicide is fundamental for predicting the fate of herbicide in soil. In order to study the sulfosulfuron persistence under different cultivation systems of wheat, a four replicated experiment was carried out in the Hashemabad Reaserch Center of Gorgan, Iran in 2010 in a split plot design with two factors. Cultivation system as the main factor consisted of six levels, including conservation tillage by Combinate, no-tillage by Baldan grain drill, conservation tillage by Chizelpacker, conservation tillage by Delta Model, surface tillage by heavy disk, and conventional tillage by moldboard plow and twice disk. Secondary factor included two levels of sulfosulfuron application(with and without sulfosulfuron). Soil samples were taken at 6 stages and soil microbial respiration and soil pH were measured as factors affecting sulfosulfuron persistence. Results showed the least time of sulfosulfuron persistence belonged to the cultivation system of no-tillage by Baldan grain drill with a half-life of 4.62 d. Then, conservation tillage by Combinate and conventional tillage with a half-life of 6.30 d and conservation tillage by Delta Model with a half-life of 9.90 d were ordered. The most time of sulfosulfuron persistence(11.55 d) was related to conservation tillage by Chizelpacker. Ninety percent reduction of sulfosulfuron concentration occurred 15.34, 20.92, 32.88, and 36.38 d after sulfosulfuron application, respectively, for no-tillage system, conservation tillage by Combinate and conventional tillage, conservation tillage by Delta Model and surface tillage, and conservation tillage by Chizelpacker. In all the cultivation systems, toxicity symptoms were not observed 40 d after spraying sulfosulfuron onto the tomato plants which were used as test plant. Effects of different cultivation systems on soil microbial respiration were also significant.     

Influences of tillage operations on soil translocation over sloping land by hoeing tillage

Very few studies have investigated the factors affecting soil displacement and tillage erosion by hoeing tillage. This study adopted a magnetic tracer method to investigate the influences of hoe form and tillage depth on soil translocation over steep hillslopes in Southwest China using a new type of magnetic tracer, i.e., ilmenite powder. Ilmenite powder enhanced the magnetic sensitivity of soil at the end position of tracer distribution, and improved the accuracy and efficiency of tillage translocation measurements. Tillage translocation by wide and perforated hoes was found to be significantly correlated with slope gradient (P < 0.01), however, no significant correlation was found for narrow and bidentate hoe tillage (P > 0.05). Compared with wide hoes, the tillage erosion rates resulting from the use of narrow, perforated and bidentate hoes were reduced by 12.4%, 11.0%, and 16.3%, respectively, indicating that changes in hoe forms resulted in a marked decrease in downslope soil translocation and tillage erosion. Tillage erosion rate decreased by 64% when the tillage depth was reduced from 0.26 to 0.14 m. These results suggest that innovations in hoe form and reductions in tillage depth are important means to manage tillage erosion due to hoeing.     

稻作区保护性耕作和小麦种植对土壤养分的影响

该文采用4个处理：常规犁耕-休闲(DTF)、常规犁耕-小麦(DTW)、保护耕作-休闲(CTF)和保护耕作-小麦(CTW),分析了10年后稻作区保护性耕作和小麦种植对土壤养分的影响。结果表明：在CTW处理下,土壤全N分别较DTF、DTW和CTF处理高10.03%、26.81%和23.17%。土壤碱解N也呈现相同的趋势;土壤全P,CTW处理下较DTF、DTW和CTF处理分别高12.93%、15.86%和21.36%。在0～10 cm土深,CTW处理下土壤有效P分别是DTF和DTW处理下的4.5和2.1倍;土壤全K在4种处理中与全N和P有类似的趋势;与处理DTF相比,Ca₂-P、Ca₈-P、Al-P、Fe-P、O-P和Ca₁₀-P在CTW下的含量迅速增加;代换态、易还原结合态、碳酸盐结合态、有机质结合态和无定形态Fe、Mn和Cu在CTW处理下含量降低,而残渣态Fe、Mn和Cu则增加。代换态和易还原锰结合态Zn在CTW处理下的含量增加,而相应地,无定形态和有机质结合态Zn则显著降低。而且,在有效Fe、Cu和Mn降低的同时,有效的Zn增加;稻作区,保护性耕作和小麦种植不仅增加表土层土壤养分的含量,而且可通过影响P、Fe、Mn、Zn和Cu的形态,缓解Fe和Mn对作物的毒害。     

Seasonal aspects of sciarid emergence in arable land (Diptera: Sciaridae)

In April-October 1990-95 soil sciarids emerging in two Danish barley fields were recorded by means of emergence traps. In 1990-92 the fields were conventionally tilled, in the autumn of 1992 one of the fields was abandoned as annual set-aside (1993) and in 1994-95 most of the field was recropped. In the cropped and uncropped fields 480-527 ind. m⁻² and 369-433 ind. m⁻² emerged, respectively. Ten sciarid species were recorded, eight of which are well-known farmland inhabitants. Apparently, abandonment affected Scatopsciara atomaria negatively, whereas Corynoptera perpusilla was encouraged. The predominant species were probably bivoltine or trivoltine. In Lycoriella castanescens, Scatopsciara atomaria, Corynoptera perpusilla and Bradysia trivittata the female proportion increased significantly during the season. It is assumed that the primary sex ratio of the species is spanandrous. The seasonal change in sex ratio might arise from the unusual modes of reproduction demonstrated in Sciaridae. In Lycoriella castanescens, Bradysia trivittata and Corynoptera perpusilla a significant seasonal increase in wing length was recorded, whereas the wing length of Scatopsciara atomaria and Bradysia rufescens decreased significantly during the season. This suggests a seasonality in the production of large, potentially migrant females. In arable fields sciarid life history traits such as sex ratio, adult biometry and fecundity might be facultative.     

The influence of soil tillage system on Salsola kali L. emergence during the fallow period within cereal fields

With the move towards conservation agriculture, we have seen an increase in weeds such as Salsola kali L., well known as Russian thistle, which are wind spread over fallow land. The emergence of this weed species seemed erratic, perhaps connected to climate conditions and management techniques. In order to shed some light on this issue, we carried out a field experiment over 3 years to monitor Russian thistle density in fallow plots, comparing three tillage systems. This study provides an insight about the limitations of assuming no-tillage techniques within a cropping system that include fallow in the rotation sequence. Our results show that no-tillage systems are more vulnerable to S. kali. Low spring rain leads to high S. kali density, especially in no-tillage plots. High spring rainfall reduced the emergence in all tillage systems because of soil water saturation. Minimum tillage technique served to maintain control over this species even in weather conditions that favoured its emergence in other systems. In order to reduce the need for herbicide in fallow lands under conservation systems, we recommend the implementation of minimum tillage to combat Russian thistle infestation.     

Effect of residue placement and chemical fertilizer on soil microbial biomass under tropical dryland cultivation

Four treatments (control, chemical fertilizer, wheat straw, and wheat straw+fertilizer) were established on the dryland experimental farm of the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University. Organic in C in the different treatments ranged from 0.69 to 0.93%, total N from 0.08 to 0.11%, and total P from 0.018 to 0.021. The application of straw significantly increased the soil water-holding capacity. The maximum effect on the microbial biomass was realized with the straw+fertilizer treatment, followed by straw and then by the fertilizer treatment. During the study microbial biomass C ranged from 144 to 491 g g^-1 dry soil, biomass N from 14.6 to 50.1 g g^-1, and biomass P from 7.2 to 17.6 g g^-1 soil. Microbial biomass C, N and P represented 3.2–4.6% of total C, 2.6–3.8% of total N, and 5.8–8.2% of total P in the soil, respectively, in all cases the highest proportion occurred in the straw+fertilizer treatment and the lowest in the control. Microbial biomass C, N, and P were positively correlated with each other. Microbial biomass C and N increased by 77% in straw+fertilizer-treated plots relative to the control. The increase in microbial biomass P in the straw+fertilizer treatment over the control was 81%. The increase in the microbial biomass is expected to enhance nutrient availability in the soil, as the microbial biomass acts both as a sink and a source of plant nutrients.     

The relative impact of land use and soil properties on sizes and turnover rates of soil organic carbon pools in Subtropical China

The dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) pools determine potential carbon sequestration and soil nutrient improvement. This study investigated the characteristics of SOC pools in five types of cultivated topsoils (0–15 cm) in subtropical China using laboratory incubation experiments under aerobic conditions. The sizes and turnover rates of the active, slow and resistant C pools were simulated using a first‐order kinetic model. The relative influence of soil environmental properties on the dynamics of different SOC pools was evaluated by applying principal component analysis (PCA) and aggregated boosted trees (ABTs) analysis. The results show that there were significantly greater sizes of different SOC pools and lower turnover rates of slow C pool in two types of paddy soils than in upland soils. Land use exerted the most significant influence on the sizes of all SOC pools, followed by clay content and soil pH. The soil C/N ratio and pH were the major determinants for turnover rates of the active and slow C pools, followed by clay content which had more impact on the turnover rates of the active C pool than the slow C pool. It is concluded that soil type exerts a significant impact on the dynamics of SOC.     

紫色土坡地旋耕机耕作侵蚀特征

耕作侵蚀的过程机制和防治技术研究是我国现阶段水土保持科学与技术的重点研究领域,关于小型旋耕机耕作的土壤再分布过程和影响因素研究较少.应用磁性示踪法研究旋耕机等高耕作、向下耕作和向上耕作的土壤再分布模式和强度,查明耕作速度对旋耕机耕作侵蚀的影响.结果表明:不同耕作方向下旋耕机单次耕作过程中均引起土壤同时发生向上坡和向下坡移动,且均导致土壤发生向下坡净位移;不同耕作速度时等高耕作和向上耕作土壤净位移与坡度均呈显著正相关(P＜0.01),而向下耕作二者无显著相关性(P＞0.05);土壤净位移量表现为快挡等高耕作(11.53 kg/m)＞快挡向下耕作(11.40kg/m)＞快挡向上耕作(7.59kg/m)＞慢挡向下耕作(7.33 kg/m)＞慢挡等高耕作(6.87 kg/m)＞慢挡向上耕作(6.29 kg/m);快挡时上下坡交替耕作的耕作侵蚀速率小于等高耕作,但慢挡时二者相当.旋耕机耕作相比传统耕作机具的耕作侵蚀明显下降,其推广应用对于防治紫色土坡地耕作侵蚀和土壤退化有重要作用.     

Dispersal power,home range and habitat preference of cantharid larvae (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in arable land

The dispersal ability, home range size and habitat preference of sixth instar larvae of the widespread cantharid species Cantharis fusca (L.) and C. livida (L.) were studied in a mark–recapture experiment in a meadow–field (winter grain) area between autumn and spring in 1999/2000. The main results and conclusions were: (i) The mean dispersal velocity of C. fusca/C. livida larvae was 1.4/1.6 m d^–1 with a maximum of 3.2/2.3 m d^–1. The larvae were able to disperse more than 100 m during their larval development, demonstrating that larvae and not only adults contribute to spreading. (ii) The average home range area of seven C. fusca individuals was 12.9 m² (minimum 8 m²/maximum 19 m²). The low number of multiple recaptures and the large distances larvae can cover indicate that the real home range size was underestimated. (iii) C. fusca larvae significantly preferred the meadow area compared to the bare ground of the field. This can be explained by the meadow's higher plant cover and humidity C. livida specimens that were released one month later and recaptured only in low numbers showed no such preference. (iv) Due to the high dispersal ability of soldier beetle larvae, immigration from meadows and grass bulks of boundary strips into the crop margins and inner field areas is possible; it can be augmented by creating constant plant cover, e.g. through winter grain or cover crops.     

Influence of reduced tillage on earthworm and microbial communities under organic arable farming

Although reduced tillage is an agricultural practice reported to decrease soil erosion and external inputs while enhancing soil fertility, it has still rarely been adopted by European organic farmers. The objective of this study was to assess the long-term interactive effects of tillage (conventional (CT) vs. reduced (RT)) and fertilization (slurry (S) vs. composted manure/slurry (MCS)) on earthworms and microbial communities in a clay soil under spelt in an organic 6-year crop rotation. Earthworm populations (species, density and biomass, cocoons) were investigated by handsorting the soil nine years after initial implementation of the treatments. Soil microbial carbon (C_mic) and nitrogen (N_mic) were measured by chloroform-fumigation extraction and a simplified phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to separate for populations of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Significantly increased total earthworm density in RT plots was mainly attributed to increased numbers of juveniles. Moreover, we found five times more cocoons with RT. Species richness was not affected by the treatments, but tillage treatments had differentially affected populations at the species-level. In addition, cluster analysis at the community level revealed two distinct groups of plots in relation to tillage treatments. In RT plots C_mic increased in the 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm soil layers, while PLFA concentrations indicative of Gram-negative bacteria, fungi and protozoa only increased in the topsoil. Lower bacteria-to-fungi ratios in the upper soil layer of RT plots indicated a shift to fungal-based decomposition of organic matter whereas a higher C_mic-to-C_org ratio pointed towards enhanced substrate availability. Slurry application decreased microbial biomass and enhanced density of juvenile anecic earthworms but overall fertilization effect was weak and no interactions with tillage were found. In conclusion, tillage is a major driver in altering communities of earthworms and microorganisms in arable soils. The use of reduced tillage provides an approach for eco-intensification by enhancing inherent soil biota functions under organic arable farming.     

Habitat modelling for the conservation of the rare ground beetle species Carabus variolosus (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in the riparian zones of headwaters

Carabus variolosus is a highly endangered insect which is listed in the EC Habitats and Species Directive. Detailed knowledge of the habitat requirements of this semi-aquatic woodland carabid beetle is needed if effective conservation and management strategies are to be developed. Previous habitat models have proved to be a successful analytical and predictive tool for the conservation of species. We conducted an intensive study over a two year period on two extant C. variolosus populations in Westphalia (Germany) using live capture pitfall traps. We analysed the distribution of the beetles over their main activity period in relation to a large number of edaphic and vegetation variables in order to estimate habitat suitability models and describe optimum ranges. C. variolosus is restricted to the fringes of water bodies and to areas of high soil moisture that display patches of bare soil, shows a slight preference for sparse tree vegetation, and avoids acidic soil. Temporal and spatial transferability of the statistically significant habitat models indicates their robustness and validity. Based on the results of our study, we suggest management measures for the conservation of C. variolosus, which promote the rehabilitation of natural flood plains of headwater areas.     

The role of shoot residues vs. crop species for soil arthropod diversity and abundance of arable systems

Removal of crop residues has become common practice in arable systems, however, little is known about how soil arthropod communities change in response to reduced resource availability and habitat complexity associated with residue removal. We added maize residues to wheat and maize fields and investigated soil arthropod diversity and abundance over the period of one year. Residue addition did not affect the diversity and little affected the abundance of soil arthropods in wheat and maize fields with the latter being restricted to few taxonomic groups, suggesting that at least in the short-term soil arthropods benefit little from crop residue-mediated increase in food supply and habitat structure. Contrasting the minor effects of residue addition, densities of soil arthropods were much higher in wheat than in maize fields, presumably due to more dense and more continuous coverage by plants, and higher input of root residues. Furthermore, in wheat fields density of arthropods more strongly varied with season, presumably due to more pronounced pulses of root exudates and root residues entering the soil in wheat as compared to maize fields in summer and winter, respectively. Low density and little variation in densities of soil arthropods in maize fields reflect that environmental conditions and resource supply varied little with crop coverage and season. Overall, the results point to low importance of aboveground crop residues for soil arthropod communities and highlight that belowground plant resources, i.e. root exudates and root residues are the major driver of soil arthropod communities of arable systems. Thus, at least in short term removal of crop residues for e.g., biofuel production is likely to be of minor importance for soil arthropod communities. In contrast, changing crop species from wheat to maize markedly reduces the density of soil animals threatening the ecosystem functions they provide.     

黑土区不同耕作措施的水土保持效益

为了探求黑土区坡耕地水土流失的有效防治措施,以吉林省伊通县毯子房小流域为典型试验研究区,采用野外观测与室内实验相结合的方法,对留茬、轮作和秸秆还田3种不同耕作措施下黑土区坡耕地的水土保持效益进行研究与分析。结果表明:1)对照处理产生径流量和泥沙量最大,秸秆还田产生侵蚀量最小,留茬、轮作和秸秆还田比对照处理径流量减少36.4%～66.7%,泥沙量减少75.2%～86.4%;2)与对照相比,留茬、轮作和秸秆还田3种不同措施下冲刷泥沙中土壤有机质质量分数分别减少56.6%,62.8%和81.4%,全氮质量分数分别减少53.3%,60.0%和80.0%,全磷质量分数减少38.5%,61.5%和84.6%,且不同处理下3种土壤养分流失总量均比对照减少85%以上。     

Effect of plastic mulch and burial depth on purple nutsedge (Cyerperus rotundus) emergence and growth

Cyperus rotundus L. causes high yield losses in fruiting vegetables and cucurbits in eastern and southeastern parts of Iran. Greenhouse and field experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of mulch type (1- and 2-layer black and clear low-density polyethylene (LDPE) sheets as well as a non-mulched control) and tuber burial depth (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cm) on C. rotundus above- and belowground growth. All experiments were conducted using three different populations from Birjand, Kahnooj, and Jiroft. It was found that the greatest suppression of C. rotundus growth in all populations was observed in plots covered with 2-layer black LDPE, so that no above- or belowground growth was found with this type of LDPEs. It was also concluded that C. rotundus can emerge from tuber burial depths in the range of 30–50 cm depending on the population studied, indicating mechanical operations that bury the tubers in soil depths even as deep as 50 cm (e.g. moldboard ploughing), cannot guarantee to suppress the emergence and tuber production of this noxious weed species. Our study clearly showed that using a 2-layer black LDPE can be recommended as a promising technique for the control of C. rotundus rather than implementing a deep tillage.     

南方红壤坡地不同耕作措施的水土保持效应

为解决南方红壤地区坡耕地水土流失问题,采用野外标准径流小区试验方法对南方红壤坡地常见的顺坡间作、横坡间作、果园清耕3种不同耕作方式下5 a时间水土保持蓄水保土效应进行了研究。结果表明,与对照小区相比,各试验小区减流率优劣次序为：横坡间作小区（75.33%）＞顺坡间作小区（59.56%）＞果园清耕小区（21.73%）,减沙效应优劣次序为横坡间作（80.57%）＞顺坡间作（65.11%）＞果园清耕（38.08%）,且4－9月的径流量占到全年径流量的85%以上,流失泥沙量占全年流失泥沙量的90%以上。因此,套种作物增加果园覆盖是防治果园水土流失的有效措施,且横坡间作优于顺坡间作。