Histological survey for oxalate nephrosis in Victorian koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)

The Mount Lofty Ranges koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population in South Australia has a high prevalence of the renal disease oxalate nephrosis, for which an underlying genetic cause is suspected. South Australian koalas primarily originate from those in French Island, Victoria; however, oxalate nephrosis has not previously been reported in Victorian koalas. Examination of kidney tissue sections from 63 koalas across Victoria found that nine koalas were affected by oxalate nephrosis (14.3%). These included 2/5 koalas from French Island (40%), 4/14 koalas from the western regions (29%), 2/11 Raymond Island koalas (18%), and 1/13 Cape Otway koalas (8%). There were no cases of oxalate nephrosis identified in the Strzelecki koalas (n = 12). These findings suggest that oxalate nephrosis occurs in koalas from French Island and populations that have received significant influx of koalas from French Island, but not in the Strzelecki region, which has little to no French Island input. This lends support to the theory that an inherited abnormality of oxalate metabolism could underlie the high prevalence of oxalate nephrosis in the Mount Lofty Ranges koala population, and molecular investigations are currently underway to investigate a genetic cause.     

The effect of visiting zoos on human health and quality of life

The increased mental stress of daily life and aging of the population are serious matters in Japan. There are many studies regarding the effects of human-animal interactions on mental and physical human health, whereas there are few studies examining the effects of visiting zoos. To determine the effect of visiting zoos on human health and quality of life, two different zoos were visited by 70 participants in Experiment 1 and 163 participants in Experiment 2. In this study we administered the WHO QOL-26 questionnaire in Japanese to assess the psychological scales of participants, and blood pressures and pulse rates were measured to assess their physical scales. We also used pedometers to count the number of steps taken during zoo visits. Both zoo visits decreased blood pressure and participants demonstrated more than 6000 steps during each visit. The quality of life sub-scale scores were improved after zoo visits.     

Malocclusions in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Malocclusions are a misalignment or incorrect positioning of the teeth when the upper and lower jaws close. These are poorly described in the koala and can result in irregular mastication which can have lifelong effects on body condition and oral health. A total of 370 koalas from two populations in Queensland (295) and one in South Australia (75) were examined for malocclusions. The prevalence of malocclusions in South Australian free‐ranging koalas, captive Queensland koalas and Queensland free‐ranging koalas was 39% (44), 30% (29) and 22% (29) respectively. Four types of malocclusion were identified based on severity of misalignment of the incisor/canine region, types 1, 2, 3 and 4. Maxillary overbite measurements of the molariform teeth were determined and these anisognathic values were then used to describe malocclusions within familial relationships in captive colonies. Captive koalas with a malocclusion had narrower mandibular width that ranged between 0.5 and 1% less than the normal measurements. The specific malocclusions reported in this study affected individuals by leading to tooth rotation, mobility and erosion with inefficient mastication of food and vegetation compaction. These changes increased the oral cavity pathology, by placing animals at risk of periodontal disease. There was evidence of familial links to malocclusion types in captive animals. Therefore captive breeding recommendations should consider known koala malocclusion traits to minimise their effect on future generations.     

Diabetes mellitus in a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Objective To describe a case of diabetes mellitus in a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).
Design A case report with controls.
Procedures We describe clinical and laboratory findings in a 6-year-old, free-living, female koala presented with traumatic injury and subsequently found to have polydipsia, hyperglycaemia and glucosuria. Over a 5 week period, serum biochemical analyses, haematological examinations, urinal-yses, measurement of serum insulin and fructosamine concentrations, necropsy, histopathological examination of a range of tissues and immunohistochemical examination of the pancreas for insulin-containing cells were done. For reference purposes, serum insulin and fructosamine concentrations were determined in four and two healthy koalas, respectively, and three healthy koalas pancreases were examined histo-logically and immunohistochemically.
Results The koala had persistent hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia, hyponatraemia, hypochloraemia and glucosuria. Serum insulin concentration of the diabetic koala was only marginally smaller than that of healthy koalas, but all concentrations were smaller than reference concentrations in dogs and people. Fructosamine concentration did not allow the diabetic koala to be distinguished from healthy koalas and concentrations of all koala analytes were greater than expected for healthy dogs and people. Histopathological examination revealed extensive degeneration of pancreatic islet cells and fatty infiltration of hepatocytes. Immunoperoxidase staining revealed decreased or absent insulin in the b cells of the affected koala.
Conclusion Clinical signs, clinicopathological results and histopathological changes were consistent with diabetes mellitus. The pathogenesis of the condition could not be determined but may have been related to the administration of a parenteral corticosteroid preparation, the stress of capture or tissue damage and inflammation.     

Epizootiology of Chlamydia infections in two free-range koala populations

The prevalence of Chlamydia pecorum and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in two free-range koala populations was assessed using genus-specific PCR combined with species-specific DNA probe hybridisation. Population A had a very high overall level of chlamydial infection (85%) with significantly more of these infections being due to C. pecorum (73%) compared to C. pneumoniae (24%). The second population had a much lower prevalence of infection (10%) with equal levels of both species. An important finding of this study was that. while five of 24 C. pecorum-infected koalas had clinical signs of the disease (both ocular and urogenital sites), none out of seven C. pneumoniae-infected koalas had signs of clinical disease. This suggests that C. pecorum may be the more pathogenic of the two chlamydial species infecting this host. The level of infection (assessed by intensity of the specific hybridisation signal) also differed between chlamydial species, with C. pecorum infections ranging from low to high grade whereas C. pneumoniae infections were always low grade. When the age of infected koalas was examined, 58% of young, sexually immature koalas were found to have C. pecorum infections, increasing to 100% of koalas in the older age groups. This suggests that, in this population at least, young koalas are readily infected with C. pecorum from their mothers. While the infection levels with C. pneumoniae were too low to be statistically significant, again, sexually immature koalas were found to be infected. The recent separation of chlamydial infections in koalas into two species is beginning to indicate different epizootiologies for koala C. pecorum compared to koala C. pneumoniae.     

2007 North American zoo and aquarium veterinary employment survey

A web-based survey was presented to 158 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited zoos and 31 AZA-accredited aquariums or marine-life parks in the United States and Canada via e-mail. The survey included questions about veterinary employment and salaries. Representatives from 124 zoos and 15 aquariums responded. Zoos and aquariums with higher operating budgets were more likely to employ full-time veterinarians. The number and percentage of zoos employing full-time zoo veterinarians have increased since the previous job survey that took place in 1988, with 59.6% of all responding zoos employing at least one full-time veterinarian. During the same time span, the proportion of male to female zoo veterinarians has shifted from a predominantly male group to an almost equal ratio. Salaries for full-time zoo and aquarium veterinarians ranged from $20,800 to $150,000.     

Review of some pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of anti‐infective medicines administered to the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Although koalas are iconic Australian animals, no pharmacokinetic studies of any first‐line medicines used to treat diseased or injured koalas had been published prior to 2010. Traditionally, medicine dosages suggested for this species underwent linear extrapolation from those recommended for domesticated species. The koala, a specialist folivore whose natural diet consists of almost exclusively Eucalyptus spp. foliage has anatomical and physiological adaptations for detoxifying their diet which also affect medicine pharmacokinetic profiles. This review addresses aspects of medicine absorption, clearance, and other indices (such as medicine binding to plasma proteins) of enrofloxacin/marbofloxacin and chloramphenicol used for the systemic treatment of chlamydiosis, and fluconazole ± amphotericin, and posaconazole for the treatment of cryptococcosis. Based on observations from published studies, this review includes suggestions to improve therapeutic outcomes when administering medicines to diseased koalas.     

INTRAVENOUS UROGRAPHY IN THE KOALA (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Urograms were performed on 16 adult koalas to evaluate this procedure for use in the koala. Because there is only small amount of intraabdominal fat, radiographs of the abdomen of koalas lack detail. Contrast medium was excreted more slowly in the koala than in the dog and there was considerable variation in the rate of excretion between koalas. The results of this study indicated that urography was valuable technique for assessing renal anatomy, but there was considerable variation in the time for excretion of the contrast medium.     

Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare infection in a captive white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) at a Japanese zoo

An adult male white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) at a Japanese zoo exhibited lethargy and emaciation. Microscopic examination of a blood smear revealed a haemosporidian parasitic infection. Based on the morphological characteristics and molecular analysis of the parasite, it was identified as Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare. This is the first report of P. juxtanucleare infection in bird species belonging to the genus Crossoptilon. Caution against avian malaria infection is required for the conservation of endangered bird species in zoos.     

Fecal progestagens to detect and monitor pregnancy in captive female cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

The purposes of the present study were to establish a noninvasive monitoring assay of fecal progestagen measurement to detect pregnancy and to identify the components of fecal progestagens in early, middle and late pregnancy in cheetahs. Feces were collected from 7 female cheetahs and analyzed from 30 days before the last copulation to parturition in 9 pregnancies. Blood was collected from one cheetah. Fecal progestagen and serum progesterone concentrations were determined by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). The profiles of the fecal progestagen concentrations were similar to the serum progesterone profile. Fecal progestagen and serum progesterone concentrations remained at the baseline until copulation. In the mean fecal progestagen profile during pregnancy (92.8 ± 0.4 days; from the last copulation to parturition), the concentrations increased 3-4 days after the last copulation and remained high until parturition. To investigate changes in the components of progestagen metabolites in the tripartite periods of gestation, fecal progestagens were analyzed by HPLC-EIA. Marked immunoreactive peaks consistent with 5α-pregnan-3α/β-ol-20-one and 5α-pregnan-3,20-dione and small peaks consistent with 5β-pregnan-3α/β-ol-20-one were detected. There were no distinct difference in the components of progestagens among the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy. The hormone assay, as an indicator of fecal 5α-reduced pregnanes, is useful for detecting pregnancy and monitoring pregnant luteal activity in cheetahs.     

Rise to power: a case study of male fecal androgen and cortisol levels before and after a non-aggressive rank change in a group of wild white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

We examined fecal androgen and cortisol levels in three adult male white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus) before and after a non-aggressive rank increase in one habituated group residing in the Santa Rosa Sector of the área de Conservación Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Fecal samples (n = 116) were collected opportunistically between July 2006 and July 2007. Alpha males had higher mean androgen levels than subordinates, and acquisition of the alpha position was linked to an immediate increase in mean androgens. Cortisol levels also increased in the alpha male after acquisition of his new rank, though this increase was delayed relative to the change in rank. These results indicate that, during a non-aggressive rank change, androgen and cortisol levels in male white-faced capuchins are physiological responses to dominance rank, rather than precursors that facilitate rank acquisition.     

生殖激素检测应用于国内动物园繁殖监测实践的可行性分析

近年来,随着中国动物园圈养野生动物管理理念、饲养技术、设施设备和人才队伍的不断发展,基于生殖内分泌学基础进行的对人工圈养下野生动物繁殖生理的科学探讨得到越来越多从业者的重视,涉及的野生动物种类也逐渐增加,获得了非常宝贵的初始数据,为动物园行业更加科学规范管理打下了坚实基础。同时,在生殖激素检测的实际操作过程中也凸现出一些现实问题。结合现阶段中国动物园行业具体情况,着重综合近年来部分相关文献资料,回顾国内动物园相关工作进展,对生殖激素分析检测在动物繁殖监测实践中的细节工作进行分析,探讨在日常饲养管理中应用的可行性,提出解决对策,为实践工作提供参考。     

Incidence of zoonoses in petting zoos and evaluation of hygiene measures to prevent the transmission to humans

In summer 2003, a study was performed in thirty Swiss petting zoos with the objective to determine the prevalence of zoonotic agents, and to describe hygiene measures implemented to reduce the risk of human infection. Fecal samples from different animal species were collected from the floor of pens to determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., verocytotoxin producing E. coli/ VTEC and Francisella tularensis. A questionnaire on hygiene measures, number of animals per species, housing system, care procedures and feeding was administered to every petting zoo to estimate exposure of visitors to zoonotic microorganisms. In total, 423 fecal samples were examined. Of these samples, 41 were positive for Campylobacter spp., which were mainly isolates from pigs and poultry (35% positive samples from each species). In pigs, 50% of the positive samples (6 samples) were typed as C. jejuni. The others were typed as C. coli (3) and C lan' (3), respectively. Five poultry isolates were typed as C. jejuni, and two as C. coli. Two samples were positive for Salmonella spp. Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from a goat, the other isolate could not be identified by serotyping. Neither Francisella tularensis nor verocytotoxin producing E. coli/ VTEC were found. The low prevalence of zoonotic microorganisms in Swiss petting zoos could be attributed to the cleanness of enclosures and animals, low stocking rates and good animal care. However, there is room for improvement concerning visitors' information on hygiene and hand washing. Furthermore, a strict separation between picnic - areas and animals should be enforced.     

Squamous cell carcinoma in a digit of the hind limb with systemic metastasis in a 17-year-old female koala

We encountered a case of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in a 17-year-old female koala at a zoo. A fragile, papillary, elevated mass was found on the third digit of the right hind limb. SCC was identified histopathologically: squamous cell-like polygonal tumor cells showed a nest-like growth pattern with epidermal down growth, central keratinization and necrotic foci, and invaded dermal connective tissues. Metastatic lesions were observed in various organs, including the lung and axillary lymph node: in the lung, multiple metastatic foci similar to the primary lesion, and in the axillary lymph node, individual polygonal tumor cells infiltrated the sinusoids. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the tumor cells were positive for proliferating cell nuclear antigen, which exhibited 32–33% of labeling indices in the tumor cells. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a case of SCC in a digit of a koala.     

Relationship of climatic conditions to fecal corticosterone levels of captive cheetahs reared in Japan

To assess the stress level of cheetahs reared in Japan and to identify the prime components of the climatic conditions that affect their thermal stress, fecal corticosterone was monitored for 8 months from May to the following January. A total of 203 fecal samples were gathered in the morning from seven adult cheetahs that were kept at a zoological garden in Wakayama, Japan. Cheetahs were on exhibit singly or together with a harmonious conspecific during the day, but housed singly at night. Although the monthly fluctuation in corticosterone concentrations was not significant, the concentrations were relatively low during the summer season. Individual differences among cheetahs and the interaction effect between individual and month on the corticosterone concentrations were significant. Whereas the corticosterone concentrations negatively correlated with air temperature, they were positively correlated with the amount of rainfall. The highest air temperature and the amount of rainfall were extracted as the prime factors affecting corticosterone concentrations. These results suggest that cheetahs reared in Japan are somewhat subjected to thermal stress, particularly on cooler and/or rainy days.     

Proctitis associated with chlamydial infection in a koala

Objective To describe proctitis associated with chlamydial infection in a koala.
Design A pathological study  

Animal

A free living, male koala aged 17 years.
Procedure Rectum was examined histologically and chlamydial organisms visualised using Giminez stain and an immunoperoxidase staining method using an anti- Chlamydia lipopolysaccharide (genus specific) antibody.
Results An aged koala presented for euthanasia was found to have asymptomatic chronic proctitis, cystitis, prostatitis, urethritis and conjunctivitis associated with chlamydial infection. Inflammation was severe in the terminal rectum and extended into the proximal common vestibule. Chlamydial organisms were visualised in the rectal surface epithelium using Giminez stain and an immunoperoxidase staining method. Organisms were also detected in the epithelium of the bladder, prostate and urethra.  

Clinical Implications

Possible modes of transmission for the rectal infection are direct sexual transmission or ascending infection by organisms shed from the urogenital tract into the common vestibule. Previously unreported chlamydial proctitis in the koala may represent a potential reservoir of infection for other koalas.     

Predation by carpet pythons (Morelia spilota) is an important cause of mortality in a free‐living koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population in South East Queensland

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are experiencing significant declines across the northern part of their range. However, unbiased, population‐level estimates of mortality are rarely reported, as it's difficult to quantify causes of mortality robustly in this cryptic species. We aimed to determine the relative importance of carpet python (Morelia spilota) predation in a free‐living koala population and describe the characteristic pathological findings during necropsy. In total, 503 koalas were captured, underwent veterinary examination and telemetric tagging, and were monitored after release over a four‐year period. Mortalities were detected when activity data reported by K‐Tracker® biotelemetry collars indicated low or zero activity, or during routine field monitoring events. Experienced koala veterinarians performed thorough, standardised necropsy examinations on retrieved carcasses to determine causes of death. The three, sometimes subtle, cardinal signs used to definitively diagnose carpet python‐caused deaths of koalas were a U‐shaped primary bite site, slicking of the fur by python saliva (particularly around the face), and diffuse, uniform pulmonary congestion. We found that carpet pythons were important predators of koalas, second only to wild dogs (dingoes and dingo hybrids (Canis familiaris dingo)), accounting for 11.6% of predation deaths and 7.2% of total deaths. Less than half (38%) of the koalas killed by carpet pythons were ingested. Though carpet pythons are known predators of koalas, their relative importance as a cause of mortality hasn't previously been recognised. Population viability analyses and conservation management plans benefit from robust cause‐of‐death data collected during longitudinal monitoring studies, requiring telemetry methods that facilitate rapid detection of mortalities.     

Lymphoid neoplasia in the koala

Objective Correlation of immunophenotype with history, anatomical and morphological features of lymphoid neoplasia in the koala.
Methods Routine necropsies were performed on 51 koalas with suspected lymphoid neoplasia between 1986 and 1997 in New South Wales and Queensland. Immuno-phenotyping was by an immunoperoxidase method utilising species cross-reactive antibodies raised against human lymphocytes and an antibody raised against koala IgG. Cases were classified according to organs and tissues affected and the morphological features of neoplastic cells.
Results Twenty-six (51%) of the cases were of the T cell immunophenotype, 12 (24%) were of B cell immunopheno-type and 13 (25%) did not stain. The age and sex of koalas did not correlate with immunophenotype (P = 0.686 and P = 1.000, respectively). Thirty-two cases were leukaemic and 36 had multiple organ involvement, probably reflecting presenta tion of koalas at advanced stages of disease. Abdominal tissue involvement was most common (44 cases), followed by nodal (32), atypical (21) and cervicomediastinal (14). The T cell immunophenotype was over-represented among the leukaemic cases (P = 0.013). Generally, the T cell immunophenotype predominated except for many affected atypical tissues. Neoplastic cells were mostly of medium nuclear size with round to oval nuclei. No correlations were found for cell morphology, mitotic index and immunopheno-type.
Conclusion The prognostic value of an immunopheno-typic, anatomical and morphological basis for the classifica tion of lymphoid neoplasia in the koala currently is limited by the need to detect these neoplasms at an early age, the requirement for freshly fixed tissues and the restricted range of available cross-reacting antibodies.     

动物园的科学发展观与市场化选择

本文从动物园的发展实践中，提出动物园的科学发展观；从发展机遇、体制创新、市场定位、功能发挥、文化建园、开拓市场、科学管理和依法经营8个方面论述了市场经济对我国动物园提出的要求。     

Validation of ultrasonography in detecting structural disease of the urogenital tract of the koala,Phascolarctos cinereus

A retrospective review of case records of ultrasonography and necropsy outcomes of 62 koalas was used to investigate the accuracy of ultrasonography in assessing koala urogenital tract structural disease at the Port Macquarie Koala Hospital. The results showed high concordance, supporting ultrasonography as an effective tool for evaluating structural disease of the koala urogenital tract, most commonly seen with chlamydiosis. The study also illustrates the advances benefiting animal welfare that can be made by wildlife carer groups through using a scientific, evidence‐based approach.