Effects of water application uniformity using a center pivot on winter wheat yield,water and nitrogen use efficiency in the North China Plain

In recent years, the use of fertigation technology with center pivot irrigation systems has increased rapidly in the North China Plain(NCP). The combined effects of water and nitrogen application uniformity on the grain yield, water use efficiency(WUE) and nitrogen use efficiency(NUE) have become a research hotspot. In this study, a two-year field experiment was conducted during the winter wheat growing season in 2016–2018 to evaluate the water application uniformity of a center pivot with two low pressure sprinklers(the R3000 sprinklers were installed in the first span, the corresponding treatment was RS; the D3000 sprinklers were installed in the second span, the corresponding treatment was DS) and a P85 A impact sprinkler as the end gun(the corresponding treatment was EG), and to analyze its effects on grain yield, WUE and NUE. The results showed that the water application uniformity coefficients of R3000, D3000 and P85 A along the radial direction of the pivot(CU_H) were 87.5, 79.5 and 65%, respectively. While the uniformity coefficients along the traveling direction of the pivot(CU_C) were all higher than 85%. The effects of water application uniformity of the R3000 and D3000 sprinklers on grain yield were not significant(P0.05); however, the average grain yield of EG was significantly lower(P0.05) than those of RS and DS, by 9.4 and 11.1% during two growing seasons, respectively. The coefficients of variation(CV) of the grain yield had a negative correlation with the uniformity coefficient. The CV of WUE was more strongly affected by the water application uniformity, compared with the WUE value, among the three treatments. The NUE of RS was higher than those of DS and EG by about 6.1 and 4.8%, respectively, but there were no significant differences in NUE among the three treatments during the two growing seasons. Although the CU_H of the D3000 sprinklers was lower than that of the R3000, it had only limited effects on the grain yield, WUE and NUE. However, the cost of D3000 sprinklers is lower than that of R3000 sprinklers. Therefore, the D3000 sprinklers are recommended for winter wheat irrigation and fertigation in the NCP.     

The impact of various sprinkler irrigation patterns on spatial soil moisture variation in Vertisols

The objective of this research was to assess the effect of soil cracks on soil moisture distribution under various sprinkler irrigation applications and to identify the optimal irrigation strategy that enhances soil moisture distribution and reduces water drainage for the upper soil layer 0–250 mm. The assessment was made for six irrigation events: the first two were for 10 and 46 mm water applications using a hand shift-set sprinkler system. The second set was for 43 and 19 mm water applications using the lateral move system with fixed sprayer heads and the third pair of events were for 43 and 32 mm water applications using the lateral move system with rotating sprinklers. The experiments were conducted on two adjacent fields at the University of Queensland, Gatton, Australia. Each field was divided into 2 m × 2 m grids that covered 62 sampling locations. For each event, the initial soil moisture content (SMC) was measured at each sampling location before irrigation. After irrigation, catch can readings were recorded for each sampling location. After 12 h overnight, the second set of soil moisture measurements was taken at each location. The area1 distribution of SMC for the studied applications was quantified. An attempt was made to identify the relationship between the applied water uniformity using catch cans and the soil moisture uniformity using gravimetric water content measurements. The study also took into consideration variables that could affect the soil physical and hydrological properties including the field slope, the soil texture, the infiltration rate, the salt content and the soil organic matter content of the two fields. Since the soils were cracking clay Vertisols, further analyses were conducted on the crack dynamics, size and distribution using image analysis techniques. The research findings demonstrated that the cracks were the main contributors to water drainage below 250 mm soil depth due to the micro-run off from the crust surface to the cracks. The cracks ranged from a few millimeters to more than 40 mm in width. It was observed that the cracks which were wider than 15 mm remained open after irrigation for the specified application rates. Improving the irrigation system application uniformity did not always result in higher uniformity of the surface SMC (0–250 mm). The event that best enhanced soil moisture distribution and thus improved soil moisture recharging was observed after the sixth irrigation event when the field received 32 mm water application. The soil was at a relatively high initial SMC of 25%, (which represented 43.3% of the plant available water range) and the sprinkler water uniformity was rather high above 87% Christiansen coefficient of uniformity (CUc). At this SMC, the extent of soil cracking is limited.     

A remote irrigation monitoring and control system (RIMCS) for continuous move systems. Part B: field testing and results

Precision irrigation systems can have inherent errors that affect the accuracy of variable water application rates controllers, as well as affect the controllers’ performance when evaluated on different continuous move irrigation systems configurations. The objective of this study was to assess the performance of a remote irrigation monitoring and control system (RIMCS) installed on two separate linear move (LM) irrigation systems. The RIMCS varies water application rates by pulsing nozzles controlled by solenoids connected via relays to a single board computer (SBC) with wireless Ethernet connection to a remote server. The system also monitors irrigation system flow, pressure, position and wireless field sensor networks. The system was installed on a LM irrigation system in Prosser, Washington, USA and on a LM in the Nesson Valley of North Dakota, USA. For the LM at Prosser, four pre-defined irrigation patterns were imposed and variable rates were applied as a percentage of the nozzle base application rate. Each nozzle was pulsed across the span length and along the LM travel direction. For the LM at the Nesson Valley, a quadratic pattern was imposed pulsing banks of nozzles along the LM travel direction. Standard catch can tests were performed and the system performance was evaluated by comparing measured catch can water depths with pre-determined target values. The RIMCS accuracy was found to be in the range of the LM uniform water depth application uniformity coefficients of 88–96%. The RIMCS was successfully transferred to another LM in North Dakota as indicated by the relatively low variable rate application errors of –8.8 ± 8.1% and −0.14 ± 6.7% for the two spans.     

‘User friendly’ software for an integrated water-energy management system for center pivot irrigation

Computers are becoming more commonly used by farmers for improving their management. The big need is ‘user friendly’ software for use by farmers. An integrated water-energy management system was developed. It includes ‘user friendly’ software run on a microcomputer which communicates to center pivot irrigation systems via radio. The program provides monitoring, control, irrigation scheduling and electrical load control. The system has been used and accepted by our cooperator for three irrigation seasons. He has been able to improve his management and reduce the amount of overirrigation and the variation between systems of total water applied.     

Field application uniformity and accuracy of two rate control systems with automatic section capabilities on agricultural sprayers

The adoption of automatic section control (ASC) on agricultural sprayers remains popular since it reduces overlap and application in unwanted areas leading to input savings and improved environmental stewardship. Most spray controllers attempt to maintain the desired target rate during ASC actuation (ON and OFF of control sections which change the width of boom-section actually spraying) but limited knowledge exists regarding controller response and nozzle discharge variation during field operation. Therefore, field experiments were conducted using two common self-propelled sprayers equipped with commercially available control systems with ASC capabilities. Pressure transducers were mounted across the spray booms to record real-time nozzle pressure with data tagged with GPS location and time. Nozzle flow was obtained from nozzle pressure to compute nozzle flow uniformity or coefficient of variations (CVs) across the ON boom, off-rate errors (percent difference between actual and target nozzle flow rate) and settling times. Results indicated that nozzle CVs were >10 % for both auto-boom and auto-nozzle control systems, when each of the auto-boom and auto-nozzle sections were turned back ON for 0.5 and 0.2 s, respectively. Further, nozzle off-rate errors exceeding ±10 % occurred in both rectangular and irregular shaped fields. These off-rate errors primarily occurred during ASC actuation while at the same time the sprayer was being accelerated or decelerated. The extended nozzle flow settling times of up to 20 s (delayed response) indicated that the rate controller may require intelligent and enhanced control algorithms to minimize nozzle flow stabilization and thereby a reduction in sprayer off-rate errors during field operation.     

168径圆形喷灌系统均匀喷灌的喷头研究

以圆形喷灌机为模型,通过数学计算并结合ANSYS仿真软件,对168径圆形喷灌系统的喷头进行研究.在喷头等间距的情况下,研究了在给定进口压力下,达到均匀灌溉时各喷孔等效半径的大小;研究了在给定等效喷孔大小的条件下,随着进口压力变化喷灌均匀度的变化;研究了在改变第一喷孔大小时,达到均匀灌溉桁架上剩余等效喷孔大小的变化趋势.     

玉米中心支轴式喷灌综合节水技术集成模式

中心支轴式喷灌机灌溉技术是现代化农业灌溉的一种模式,将中心支轴式喷灌灌水技术与玉米耕作技术、栽培技术、田间管理技术等集成,形成玉米中心支轴式喷灌综合节水技术集成模式,对于提高玉米综合生产能力具有重要的现实意义。     

Real-time nozzle flow uniformity when using automatic section control on agricultural sprayers

Automatic section control (ASC) has been readily adopted by US producers on sprayers because it can improve operator productivity and decrease overlap or input usage leading to economic savings while reducing environmental impacts. However, there is limited knowledge about nozzle flow dynamics when shutting ON/OFF of boom-sections or nozzles and the possible impact on application accuracy. Therefore, an investigation was conducted to evaluate system response in managing real-time nozzle off-rate and flow uniformity across the boom, for a typical agricultural sprayer using ASC. An 18.3-m sprayer was outfitted with commercially available individual nozzle and boom-section control. Tests were conducted to simulate sprayer moving out of point rows into a no-spray zone and then reentry into the spray zone by selecting two point row scenarios having 20° and 70° angles. Ten high frequency response pressure sensors were randomly mounted across the boom to measure nozzle pressure. The nozzle pressures were converted to nozzle flow, using the manufacturers pressure versus flow relationship, to calculate nozzle flow rate delay time, settling time, percent off-rate (percent difference between actual and target nozzle flow rate) and nozzle flow uniformity (CV), considering only ON boom-sections. Auto-boom scenarios were conducted with and with-out flow compensation while auto-nozzle scenarios were conducted without flow compensation. Results indicated that nozzle flow rate settling time varied from 0.4 to 14.4 s and nozzle off-rate between 36.6% and +28.7% for 70° point row auto-boom tests when exiting and reentering point rows. When exiting point rows, over-application occurred whereas reentry resulted in under-application during flow compensated tests. Nozzle flow uniformity (CV) were more than 50% for a short duration (<1.0 s) when reentering point rows, during all tests. Compensation testing for 20° point row reentry highlighted the constraint of the control system to respond to certain situations where feedback response times could not match target rates rapidly set for the controller. Overall results indicated that system response time can impact nozzle off-rate and can vary with point row angle.     

DEPIVOT: A model for center-pivot design and evaluation

Center-pivot sprinkler irrigation became very popular. Hence, aimed at farmers advising, the simulation model DEPIVOT has been developed with the objective of design new systems or changes in systems in operation. The software consists of a simulation package developed in Visual Basic and data base in Access. The model comprises five main sub-models for: (a) computation of the gross irrigation requirements; (b) sizing of the lateral pipe spans through the hydraulics computation of the friction losses and respective operative simulation considering to the effects of topography and the possible requirements of an end gun; (c) selecting a sprinklers package with computation of pressure and discharge at each outlet and including the consideration of pressure regulators; (d) verification of the sprinklers package through estimation of runoff potential by comparing application and infiltration rates at selected locations along the lateral; and (e) estimating the expected uniformity performance indicators when in operation. The user verifies if performance is within target values set at start and may develop and compare alternative sprinkler packages until appropriate conditions are obtained. When the model is used for evaluation of systems under operation using data collected in farmers’ fields performance indicators are computed and, responding to farmers’ needs, the model may be used to design changes in the existing systems and to improve management. This paper describes the model and shows examples of applications to select a sprinkler package and assess the respective runoff potential.     

A Remote Irrigation Monitoring and Control System for continuous move systems. Part A: description and development

Continuous move irrigation systems have been modified since the 1990s to support variable rate irrigation. Most of these systems used PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) technology that performed well for on-site control but were very expensive to add remote, real-time monitoring and control aspects that have been made possible by wireless sensor networks and the Internet. A new approach to the monitoring and control of continuous move irrigation systems is described. This system uses a Single Board Computer (SBC) using the Linux operating system to control solenoids connected to individual or groups of nozzles based on prescribed application maps. The main control box houses the SBC connected to a sensor network radio, a GPS (Global Positioning System) unit, and an Ethernet radio creating a wireless connection to a remote server. A C-software control program resides on the SBC to control the on/off time for each nozzle group using a “time on” application map developed remotely. The SBC also interfaces with the sensor network radio to record measurements from sensors on the irrigation system and in the field that monitor performance and soil and crop conditions. The SBC automatically populates a remote database on the server in real time and provides software applications to monitor and control the irrigation system through the Internet.     

帐篷性能测试模拟降雨及雨量检测系统研究

为了检验帐篷在工作状态下防止雨水渗漏的能力,特进行了帐篷性能测试模拟降雨及雨量检测系统的研究。系统由机组管路、雨量检测、电气控制三大系统组成。首先确定降雨强度,结合试验场地有效淋雨总面积,计算所需总雨量。按所需最大流量,确定水泵、管路、喷头、阀件型号及安装、布置方式等机组管路系统设计。触摸屏与PLC通信,按照预定程序和控制逻辑,实现雨量等模拟量的检测、显示和控制变频器、电磁(动)阀的启停。变频器根据降雨量等级,设置不同的多段速参数,结合不同数量、型号的喷头投入,模拟不同的降雨等级。运行效果表明:系统性能可靠,可实现帐篷性能测试模拟降雨及雨量检测。     

通断周期因素对CIPS测试结果的影响

通过现场测试,明确了管道CIPS测试结果与通断周期、通断时间比、数据采集延迟时间等因素的关系。指出在进行CIPS检测前,应进行实地现场测试,以得出当地合理的通断周期、通断时间比、数据采集延迟时间等数值。     

Design and Experiment of Slave Computer Control System for Applying Variable-rate Liquid Fertilizer

In order to increase the applying rate of liquid fertilizer and reduce environmental pollution, a slave computer control system for applying variable-rate liquid fertilizer was designed. The system used SMC as core processor and electrically controlled pressure regulator as execution component. The characteristic equation of the system was obtained by using classical control theory. Results indicated that the characteristic equation met the requirements of routh-criterion, which indicated the working process of the system was stable. Performance of the slave computer was verified via bench tests. Results demonstrated that there was no significant influence on the response from interclass error. The fertilization error was less than 0.9, and the fertilization accuracy was larger than 97%. The liquid fertilizer emitted by the fertilizing devices had no significant difference in uniformity, which met the demands of the slave computer control system for applying variable-rate liquid fertilizer.     

鲁安中药材基地喷灌设计与安装

中药材种植基地的喷灌系统,要求既满足灌溉需要又不影响中药材收获对象的产量和质量。结合中药材喷灌工程实例,阐述了管道布置、喷头选择、喷头间距和支管间距的确定、主管与支管的管径计算、管道水头损失计算、喷灌强度计算、水泵选配等喷灌设计方法以及开挖管道沟、安装管道和立杆、安装水泵和控制系统、安装喷头等施工过程和注意事项,全部设计安装过程为大面积生产基地的基础农业设施建设提供了参考。     

设施栽培条件下番茄适宜的氮素管理和灌溉模式

 【目的】探索设施栽培条件下番茄适宜的氮素管理和灌溉模式。【方法】试验设4个处理：对照、传统氮素管理、优化氮素管理和推荐氮素管理。比较不同处理间的番茄产量、氮肥追施量、氮素损失量、化学氮肥和灌溉水农学效益等。【结果】（1）对照处理未追施化学氮肥,产量仍达到较高水平,冬春季出现了随着氮肥追施量的增加而减产的现象。（2）传统氮素管理每季的氮肥追施量为600 kgN?hm-2,灌溉量约7 500 m3?hm-2,不合理的水氮管理造成每年1 416 kgN?hm-2的表观氮素损失;与传统处理相比,推荐氮素管理每季番茄氮肥追施量减少50%,全年氮肥损失量减少32.2%;优化氮素管理两季番茄氮肥追施量为314和124 kgN?hm-2,灌溉量分别为3 900和4 550 m3?hm-2,全年的氮肥损失量减少38.6%。（3）传统、优化和推荐氮素管理全年的化学氮肥农学效益为0、24.9和0.3 kgFW?kg-1N,传统和优化灌溉的灌溉水农学效益分别为12.2和23.2 kg FW?m-3。（4）优化氮素管理模式每年可减少4 000元/hm2的氮肥和灌溉用电费用。【结论】本试验条件下,氮肥追施量已不是番茄产量进一步提高的主要限制因素。氮素追施调控结合小管出流及夏季休闲时施用小麦秸秆和氰氨化钙的水氮管理是较优的番茄氮素管理和灌溉模式。     

Analysis of soil water availability by integrating spatial and temporal sensor-based data

An efficient irrigation system should meet crop demands for water. A limited water supply may result in reductions in yield, while excess irrigation is a waste of resources. To investigate water availability throughout the growing season, on-the-go sensing technologies (field elevation and apparent electrical conductivity) were used to analyze the spatial variability of soil relevant to its water-holding capacity. High-density data layers were used to identify strategic sites to monitor changes in plant-available water over time. To illustrate this approach, nine locations in a 37-ha agricultural field were selected for monitoring the soil matric potential and temperature at four depths (18, 48, 79 and 109 cm) using wireless technology. Using a linear regression approach, a field-specific model was developed that quantified plant-available water at every field location and at specific points in time. Further analysis was used to quantify the percentage of the field that undergoes a potential shortage in water supply. These results could be used to optimize irrigation scheduling and to assess the potential for variable-rate irrigation.     

干旱区棉花水分胁迫指数对滴灌均匀系数和灌水量的响应

为了修订和完善滴灌均匀系数的设计与评价标准,在新疆干旱区研究了滴灌均匀系数和灌水量对作物水分胁迫指数（CWSI）的影响。供试作物为棉花,试验中滴灌均匀系数（C_u）设置0.65（C1）、0.78（C2）和0.94（C3）三个水平,灌水量设置充分灌水量的50%、75%和100%三个水平。结果表明：棉花冠层温度和CWSI表现出随灌水量增加而降低的趋势;冠层温度和CWSI均匀系数的变化范围分别为0.91～0.98和0.65～0.91,均随滴灌均匀系数增加而增大;灌水量对冠层温度和CWSI均值的影响达到极显著水平（α=0.01）,滴灌均匀系数对冠层温度和CWSI均匀系数的影响达到显著水平（α=0.05）或极显著水平。CWSI与皮棉产量呈显著或极显著的负相关关系;滴灌均匀系数越低,水分亏缺引起的减产幅度越小。     

Prediction of plant water status in almond and walnut trees using a continuous leaf monitoring system

Persistent drought conditions in the Central valley of California demands efficient irrigation scheduling tools such as precision or variable rate irrigation (VRI). To assist VRI scheduling, an experiment was conducted in almond and walnut orchards using a sensor system called ‘leaf monitor’, which was developed at UC Davis to detect plant water status. A Modified Crop Water Stress Index (MCWSI) was calculated to quantify plant water status using leaf temperature and environmental data collected by the leaf monitor. This technique also took into account spatio-temporal variability of plant water status. Stem water potential (SWP), which is considered a standard method for determining plant water stress (PWS), was also measured simultaneously. Relationships between measured deficit stem water potential (DSWP), which is the difference between SWP and the saturated baseline, and MCWSI were developed for both crops based on data collected during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons. A linear relationship was found in the case of walnut crop with a coefficient of determination (r²) value of 0.67. A quadratic relationship was found in the case of almonds with a coefficient of multiple determination (R²) value of 0.75. Moreover, these results highlighted that at lower PWS of below 0.5 MPa of DSWP, almonds crops did not show any decrease in transpiration rate. However, when the stress level exceeded 0.5 MPa of DSWP, transpiration rate tended to decrease. On the other hand, walnut crop showed decrease in transpiration rate even at low PWS of below 0.5 MPa of DSWP. Temporal variability was noticed in PWS as it was found that coefficients of saturation baseline used for MCWSI method changed significantly throughout the season. MCWSI values estimated before an irrigation event was used to calculate the irrigation amount for low frequency variable rate irrigation (VRI) based on the relationship found between MCWSI and DSWP, and VRI led to an average 39% reduction in water usage as compared to the fixed 100% ET replacement irrigation method for all trees. Based on the results, leaf monitor showed potential for use as an irrigation scheduling tool.

     

滴头堵塞率及堵塞位置对灌水均匀度的影响

采用控制堵塞试验的方法,在压力恒定的条件下,分析了堵塞率、堵塞位置对灌水均匀度的影响规律。试验结果表明：当压力在4～10 m变化时,压力对于灌水均匀度的影响不显著,其变化范围在1%以内,生产实际中可以适当降低滴灌带的工作压力达到降低造价的目的;堵塞率是影响灌水均匀度的主要原因,堵塞率越高灌水均匀度越差,当堵塞率超过10%时,灌水均匀度CU已经远低于规范的最低值;只有当堵塞率不大于10%时,堵塞位置才对灌水均匀度有一定的影响,当堵塞位置分布在滴灌带前三分之一段和全段时,对灌水均匀度的影响较明显,此时灌水均匀度最小。     

Impact of variable-rate application of nitrogen on yield and profit: a case study from South Africa

The response of maize (Zea mays) to banded variable-rate nitrogen (N) application over a period of 3 years (2002/3–2004/5) is analyzed. The experimental design alternated variable-rate (VR) and single-rate (SR) applications of N. The yield monitor data were spatially autocorrelated and therefore were analyzed with spatial regression methods. The baseline spatial regression model defined in this study showed that the VR treatment, treatment by year and treatment by management zone were statistically significant. Sensitivity tests were applied; the first showed that VR treatment had a yield advantage when soil depth was greater than the field average of 174 cm. The second test showed that the VR N rates applied were close to those that would maximize profit. Partial budgeting indicates that benefits from VR vary from year to year, but in this test VR was slightly more profitable than uniform rate application. Economic sensitivity testing indicates that farm size and the price of maize are the key factors in the profitability of VR N.