Longitudinal- and transverse-scale environmental influences on riparian vegetation across multiple levels of ecological organization

Riparian vegetation is distinct from adjacent upland terrestrial vegetation and its distribution is affected by various environmental controls operating at the longitudinal scale (along the river) or transverse scale (perpendicular to the river). Although several studies have shown how the relative importance of transverse or longitudinal influences varies with the scale of observation, few have examined how the influences of the two scales vary with the level of ecological organization. We modeled vegetation-environment relationships at three hierarchically nested levels of ecological organization: species, plant community, and vegetation type. Our hierarchically structured analyses differentiated the spatial extent of riparian zones from adjacent upland vegetation, the distribution of plant community types within the riparian zone, and the distribution of plant species within community types. Longitudinal gradients associated with climate and elevation exerted stronger effects at the species level than at the community level. Transverse gradients related to lateral surface water flux and groundwater availability distinguished riparian and upland vegetation types, although longitudinal gradients of variation better predicted species composition within either riparian or upland communities. We concur with other studies of riparian landscape ecology that the relative predictive power of environmental controls for modeling patterns of biodiversity is confounded with the spatial extent of the study area and sampling scheme. A hierarchical approach to spatial modeling of vegetation-environment relationships will yield substantial insights on riparian landscape patterns.     

井陉县大青山野皂荚群落植物组成及多样性分析

为研究井陉县大青山地区野皂荚群落植物组成和多样性特征，以太行山中部井陉县低山区的野皂荚群落为研究对象，采用样方法，分析群落植物组成和多样性特征。结果表明，井陉县大青山地区野皂荚群落共有植物30种，隶属于19科28属；从植物组成来看，调查样地植物种类较多的是禾本科、豆科和菊科；植物优势种为鹅耳枥、野皂荚、荆条、中亚苔草和中华卷柏；从多样性指数来看，灌木层和草本层多样性指数、丰富度均高于乔木层；而乔木层的均匀度和优势度均高于灌木层和草本层。     

Microhabitat preferences of butterflies in urban parks: Both vegetation structure and resources are decisive

Urban parks comprise diverse microhabitats, such as vegetation units of lawn and arbour forests, with differing biodiversity potentials. However, the influences of microhabitats on butterfly diversity and the mechanisms involved remain unclear. This study used butterfly survey data from 112 plots in 27 urban parks in the central metropolitan area of Beijing, China, from June to September 2020. Based on the growth form of larval host plants, recorded butterfly species were classified into three functional groups: woody plant-feeding taxa (WF), herb-feeding taxa (HF), and feeding on multiple plant growth forms taxa (MF). We analysed the effects of 11 variables among three facets, namely, vegetation composition, vegetation structure, and human activity, on the butterfly diversity (species richness and abundance) of the whole community, three functional groups using generalised linear mixed models. Twenty-five butterfly species observed mainly feed on herbs rather than on woody plants. Our results demonstrated that vegetation community characteristics explain up to 24% and 43% variation in butterfly species richness and abundance, respectively. Of this, vegetation structure facets crucially affected butterfly species richness, and vegetation composition facets had the most significant influence on the abundance of the whole butterfly community. However, the impact of human activity factors was minimal. Light availability and herb height belonging to vegetation structure factors and nectar plant species richness and nectar abundance which belonged to vegetation composition factors showed the most important and positive effects on butterfly diversity. The positive impact of the above significant factors was found especially on herb-feeding butterfly diversity. In contrast, the diversity of butterflies feeding on woody plants was most positively influenced by herb height. We thus suggest that it is necessary to guarantee the presence of a well-developed herb layer, which provides abundant nectar sources and maintain specific open spaces to ensure light availability. In conclusion, our findings imply that the critical role of the spatial structure of vegetation community is conspicuous in the formation of suitable microhabitats for butterflies, and managers could combine vegetation management practices with the needs of specific functional groups.     

华安县红楼至和目坑公路建设项目植被现状调查分析

对福建省华安县公路建设项目植被现状进行调查,结果表明：现状植被生态类型除农田耕地、茶园、竹林、果林和杉木林、巨尾桉林外,余为次生杂生性灌草植被,植物区系成分和群落类型均属广布性的种类与群落类型。根据调查,果林、竹林、杉木、巨尾桉植物群落结构简单,林下植物较少,一般灌木层较为稀疏。物种多样性指数表明,评价范围内乔木层和灌木层的多样性指数较低。     

Landscape context and plant community composition in grazed agricultural systems of the Northeastern United States

Temperate humid grazing lands are an important component of the landscape of the northeastern United States, as well as of the economy of this region. Unlike their European counterparts, little is known about the basic ecology of managed grasslands in this region. During an 8-year survey of 28 farms across the northeastern United States, we sampled the vegetation on 95 grazed plots, identifying 310 plant species, and collected data on topography, climate and soils. Landscape structure data were obtained from the National Land Cover Data (NLCD) 2001 for six radii (250–2,000 m) surrounding each site. The 500-m radius was most strongly related to plant community composition. Planned species composition was related only to site factors, while associated species were influenced by both site factors and landscape pattern. Species richness was unrelated to landscape structure for either group. Differing management effects on planned and associated species may explain the variation in their responses. Managed grasslands are a critical part of the interconnected landscape of the northeastern United States, and both affect and are affected by their surroundings.     

Spatial variations of plant species diversity in urban soil seed banks in Beijing,China: Implications for plant regeneration and succession

The near-to-nature urban forestry concept and practices are widely recognized for urban greening, urban ecosystem restoration, urban greenspace management for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. However, the regeneration and succession of urban vegetation are rarely studied due to the complex settings of the urban environment. To this end, we conducted a large-scale field investigation in the metropolitan area of Beijing, China to explore the spatial variations in plant species composition and diversity in soil seed banks, and their similarity to the aboveground vegetation to assess the potential of urban plant regeneration. Overall, 657 vegetation and soil sampling plots from 219 grids, measuring 2 km × 2 km each, were investigated within two perpendicular 10 km wide transects running across the urban center in north-south and east-west directions within the 6th Ring Road of the city. We recorded a total of 102 plant species in soil seed banks, including 13 tree species, 10 shrub species, and 79 herb species. We found that the soil seed bank species diversity and its similarity to that of the aboveground vegetation communities decreased significantly with the urbanization intensity. Higher urbanization intensity is typically associated with increased human management and a reduction in Greenspace Area (GSA). Soil seed bank species richness increased significantly when GSA exceeded 45 % and the similarity of species composition and diversity between soil seed banks and aboveground vegetation communities was the highest in forest parks. This suggests that habitats under forest park management are more conducive to plant regeneration. Soil seed bank species diversity first increased and then decreased significantly with increased distance to the city center, whereas the species similarity between the soil seed banks and the aboveground vegetation communities showed little change with the ring roads going out. The results of this study have important implications for further understanding the potential for urban vegetation regeneration and sustainability, which have significant implications for urban biodiversity conservation and restoration.     

The designation of a historical site to maintain plant diversity in the Tokyo metropolitan region

Although urban habitats contribute to the conservation of species diversity, urbanization has significantly reduced biodiversity by causing environmental changes such as habitat loss and fragmentation. Therefore, research on urban biodiversity studies has become increasingly important. Historical heritage sites are recognized as important habitats in remnant green spaces in urban areas. We aimed to evaluate the role of historical sites in conserving biodiversity in urban areas. As the land in these historical sites is not modified, they have the potential to conserve biodiversity through continued maintenance activities such as mowing and tree cutting. In Japan, Tamagawa-josui, a waterway that runs from west to east through the Tokyo megacity (35° 40′ N, 139° 25′ E), has been recognized as a civil engineering heritage landmark that preserves water utilization technology from the early modern period (1600s, Edo-era). The present study examined the relationships between plant diversity and green space in a historic site of a megacity (i.e., Tamagawa-josui) and determined the factors that influence plant diversity. Specifically, we examined the relationships between plant species indices (species richness and species compositions) and environmental factors (management, environmental conditions, and landscape factors). The present study analyzed spatial changes in the plant species composition in Tamagawa-josui. We demonstrated that tree canopy openness was positively correlated with plant species richness, and the increased disturbance associated with developing historical sites as urban parks was negatively correlated with native plant species richness. In addition, there was significant species turnover in the plant community from upstream to downstream in Tamagawa-josui, which could largely be explained by spatial factors. We demonstrated that historical sites can provide potential habitats for the conservation of the plant species diversity, which is based on the effectiveness of the management of their vegetation.     

Hydric vegetation communities across rural,peri-urban,and urban zones within the Prairie Pothole Region

Wetland and pond hydric vegetation is impacted across the rural, peri-urban, and urban zones by anthropogenic activities such as agricultural production, industrial manufacturing, and urban development. Previous studies have assessed urban and rural wetland vegetation, but have rarely explored the peri-urban zone of development. Therefore, to investigate the impacts of urbanization on hydric vegetation, thirty pond sites (10 rural, 10 peri-urban, and 10 urban) were randomly selected within each of the three zones. The vegetation community at each site was assessed using a quadrat method to compare the vegetation composition. In addition, floristic quality based on the conservatism value of each plant species was used to assess wetland vegetation. Results show plant communities of rural sites differed from both urban and peri-urban sites due partly to urbanization reducing the cover of obligate wetland species. Peri-urban sites contained the highest species richness, due to the increase in introduced plants associated with urbanization. Urban sites contained the lowest species richness, some of which is due to the use of rock riprap surrounding the edges of most sites. The plant conservatism values of vegetation were not different for rural and peri-urban sites, but were significantly lower in urban sites. Information from this study is useful to wetland professionals, environmental managers, and urban planners to predict hydric vegetation responses within peri-urban areas in the Prairie Pothole Region.     

Local habitat characteristics have a stronger effect than the surrounding urban landscape on beetle communities on green roofs

Green roofs are a promising tool to return nature to cities and mitigate biodiversity loss brought about by urbanization. Yet, we lack basic information on how green roofs contribute to biodiversity and how their placement in the urban landscape affects different taxa and community composition. We studied the effects of local and landscape variables on beetle communities on green roofs. We expected that both local roof characteristics and urban landscape composition shape communities, but that their relative importance depends on species characteristics. Using pitfall traps, we collected beetles during two consecutive years from 17 green roofs in Basel, Switzerland. We evaluated the contribution of six local and six landscape variables to beetle community structure and to the responses of individual species. Communities on the roofs consisted of mobile and open dry-habitat species, with both local and landscape variables playing a role in structuring these communities. At the individual species level, local roof variables were more important than characteristics of the surrounding urban landscape. The most influential factors affecting the abundances of beetle species were vegetation, described as forb and grass cover (mainly positive), and roof age (mainly negative). Therefore, we suggest that the careful planning of green roofs with diverse vegetation is essential to increase their value as habitat for beetles. In addition, while beetle communities on green roofs can be diverse regardless of their placement in the urban landscape, the lack of wingless species indicates the need to increase the connectivity of green roofs to ground level habitats.     

Multi-scale responses of bird species to tree cover and development in an urbanizing landscape

Landscape change is an ongoing process for even the most established landscapes, especially in context to urban intensification and growth. As urbanization increases over the next century, supporting bird species’ populations within urbanizing areas remains an important conservation challenge. Fundamental elements of the biophysical structure of urban environments in which bird species likely respond include tree cover and human infrastructure. We broadly examine how tree cover and urban development structure bird species distributions along the urban-rural gradient across multiple spatial scales. We established a regional sampling design within the Oak Openings Region of northwestern, Ohio, USA, to survey bird species distributions across an extensive urbanization gradient. Through occupancy modeling, we obtained standardized effects of bird species response to local and landscape-scale predictors and found that landscape tree cover influenced the most species, followed by landscape impervious surface, local building density, and local tree cover. We found that responses varied according to habitat affiliation and migratory distance of individual bird species. Distributions of short-distance, edge habitat species located towards the rural end of the gradient were explained primarily by low levels of urbanization and potential vegetative and supplemental resources associated with these areas, while forest species distributions were primarily related to increasing landscape tree cover. Our findings accentuate the importance of scale relative to urbanization and help target where potential actions may arise to benefit bird diversity. Management will likely need to be implemented by municipal governments and agencies to promote tree cover at landscape scale, followed by residential land management education for private landowners. These approaches will be vital in sustaining biodiversity in urbanizing landscapes as urban growth expands over the next century.     

Effects of vegetation structure and environmental characteristics on pollinator diversity in urban green spaces

With accelerating urbanization, insect pollinators in urban ecosystems face challenges such as reduced pollen sources, habitat fragmentation, and damage to the nesting environment. Urban green spaces (UGS) are essential for the stability of pollinator communities. However, little is known about the relationship between vertical layer heterogeneity and horizontal layer complexity of vegetation structure in UGS and pollinator communities. The present study aimed to assess how vegetation structure and environmental characteristics shape the insect pollinator community in UGS. To this end, this study was conducted with seven typical vegetation types which were selected according to the biotope mapping classification system (BMCS) in the ring parks around Hefei City, in Anhui province, China. A total of 11,401 pollinators belonging to 6 orders and 34 families were identified during the eight-month survey. Among the seven habitats under the BMCS, mainly successional short-cut shrub and partly open green space, trees two- or multi-layered broad-leaved mixed forest and partly closed green space, and mainly successional tall grass and partly open green space were identified as high-quality insect pollinator habitats. According to the results of the generalized linear regression, the explanatory power of the four best-fitting generalised linear models is relatively high (over 77%). In four optimal models, the effect of vegetation structure on pollinator community was greater than that of environmental characteristics. The redundancy discriminant analysis showed that the flowering abundance of nectar plants, herb richness, and shrub coverage rate were the three most important factors influencing insect pollinator communities, with a cumulative explanatory power of up to 78.8%. Pollinator abundance was positively influenced by spontaneous herbs and low-intensity management. However, high-intensity management, low diversity of plants, low nectar plant richness, ignoring seasonal nectar plant configuration, and dense tree distribution could limit pollinator reproduction and population growth. These results reflect the status of insect pollinator community in UGS in Hefei city and present a possible direction for improving urban green habitats and plant configurations.     

Biodiversity is associated with indicators of soil ecosystem functions over a landscape gradient of agricultural intensification

Agricultural intensification has led to dramatic losses in biodiversity over the past several decades. Many studies have shown the effects of intensification on vegetation or soil communities at field or local scales. However, the functional significance of biodiversity may only appear at larger spatial and temporal scales, due to exchanges among local ecosystems throughout a landscape. To examine how patterns of biodiversity loss are reflected at larger spatial scales, plant and soil biodiversity and associated indicators of ecosystem functions were assessed in riparian areas over a 150 km² agricultural landscape in the Sacramento Valley of California. Publicly-available GIS data were first used to classify and select sites over the range of soils, topography and plant community types. Representative sites from the landscape were sampled for soil physiochemical properties, as well as microbial, nematode, and plant communities. Higher agricultural intensification, based on field and landscape indices, was negatively correlated with richness and diversity of plant and soil taxa, and was related to indicators of ecosystem functions, such as increased soil nitrate and phosphorus loading, decreased riparian health ratings, and lower soil carbon, soil microbial biomass and soil food web structure. Both field- and landscape-scale factors played important roles in the measured losses. The study area was composed of a wide array of soils, vegetation, and land management, indicating that the observed trends transcended site-specific conditions.     

Partitioning the multi-scale effects of human activity on the occurrence of riparian forest birds

Conservationists, managers, and land planners are faced with the difficult task of balancing many issues regarding humans impacts on natural systems. Many of these potential impacts arise from local-scale and landscape-scale changes, but such changes often covary, which makes it difficult to isolate and compare independent effects arising from humans. We partition multi-scale impacts on riparian forest bird distribution in 105 patches along approximately 500 km of the Madison and Missouri Rivers, Montana, USA. To do so, we coupled environmental information from local (within-patch), patch, and landscape scales reflecting potential human impacts from grazing, invasive plant species, habitat loss and fragmentation, and human development with the distribution of 28 terrestrial breeding bird species in 2004 and 2005. Variation partitioning of the influence of different spatial scales suggested that local-scale vegetation gradients explained more unique variation in bird distribution than did information from patch and landscape scales. Partitioning potential human impacts revealed, however, that riparian habitat loss and fragmentation at the patch and landscape scales explained more unique variation than did local disturbances or landscape-scale development (i.e., building density in the surrounding landscape). When distribution was correlated with human disturbance, local-scale disturbance had more consistent impacts than other scales, with species showing consistent negative correlations with grazing but positive correlations with invasives. We conclude that while local vegetation structure best explains bird distribution, managers concerned with ongoing human influences in this system need to focus more on mitigating the effects of large-scale disturbances than on more local land use issues. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Plant richness increases with surrounding habitat and management burns over 30-years in suburban forest understories

Forests within and adjacent to cities are important habitats for native species and provide vital ecosystem services to cities and their residents. Herbaceous plants represent over 80% of all plant species in these forests, yet little is known about the long-term effects of management and landscape context on the understory of suburban forests. In this study, we used a 30-year dataset to fill this knowledge gap and evaluate the effect of prescribed burns on native forest herbs in suburban forest preserves of DuPage County, Illinois, USA. We also evaluated how the amount and configuration of forest habitat at multiple spatial scales affects native herb richness, gains, and losses in these forests over 30 years. We found that forests managed with prescribed burns increased in native herb richness over time, while unburned forests did not. Managed forests now have more native herb species than unburned forests. We also found that habitat amount in the surrounding landscape, but not the configuration of that habitat, had a positive effect on native herb richness and species gains over 30 years. Overall, we conclude that prescribed burns are effective in maintaining native forest herb richness in suburban forests. However, additional management actions such as seed augmentation may be required in areas with little surrounding forest herb habitat, as both overall richness and species gains over time are reduced in isolated forests.     

Historical landscape ecology of an urbanized California valley: wetlands and woodlands in the Santa Clara Valley

Historical records provide information to land managers and landscape ecologists attempting to understand current trajectories in altered landscapes. In this study, we synthesized a heterogeneous array of historical sources to reconstruct historical land cover in California’s Santa Clara Valley (a.k.a. “Silicon Valley”). To increase and assess accuracy, we used the triangulation of overlapping, independent data sources and the application of certainty level standards. The region has been subject to extensive urbanization, so we also evaluated the applicability of historical landscape reconstructions to the altered landscape. We found evidence for five major land cover types prior to significant Euro–American modification. Valley freshwater marsh, wet meadow, alkali meadow, willow grove, and valley oak savanna have all experienced extreme decline (85–100%) since Euro–American settlement. However, comparison of historical land cover patterns to contemporary land use suggested several new strategies for environmental recovery, despite the limitations of surrounding urbanization. We also observed a temporal shift in riparian habitat along the mainstem of Coyote Creek, from a relatively open mixture of riparian scrub, sycamore woodland, and unvegetated gravel bars to dense riparian forest, likely resulting from stream flow regulation. By identifying former land cover patterns we provide a basis for evaluating local landscape change and setting restoration targets, including the identification of residual features and under-recognized land cover types. These findings suggest that reliable historical landscape reconstructions can be developed in the absence of standardized historical data sources and can be of value even in highly modified regions.     

杭州市城区主干道路绿地现状调查与分析

通过对杭州市城区主干道路绿地进行调查,从道路绿地结构、绿化树种和群落结构类型等方面对杭州主干道路绿地进行分析。结果表明:杭州市道路绿地主要应用的树种有66科、112属、144种,常绿树与落叶树的数量比为1.31∶1.00。为进一步优化道路绿地景观,应提高植物多样性水平,充分发挥路侧绿地的生态功能,并注重道路绿地建设的文化特色。最后讨论了杭州市在道路绿地建设中存在的问题并提出改进意见。     

华北落叶松人工林目标树经营效果研究

为研究不同株数目标树经营（标准地设置为600 m²,每块标准地5株目标树记为T₅、每块标准地8株目标树记为T₈）对林分生长及林下草本层植物多样性的影响,以河北省木兰围场国有林场山湾子分场21年生华北落叶松人工林为研究对象,采用样地调查法,对目标树经营5年后的华北落叶松人工林生长及植物多样性变化进行比较分析。结果表明,目标树经营林分胸径年均生长量、平均单株材积年均生长量、蓄积年均生长量均高于CK,T₈、T₅胸径年均生长量分别是CK的1.7倍、1.5倍,T₈、T₅平均单株材积年均生长量分别是CK的1.5倍、1.2倍,T₈、T₅蓄积年均生长量分别是CK的1.3倍、1.1倍。用Forstat对径阶分布拟合,T₈径阶分布为正态分布拟合效果最好,呈现右偏,T₅径阶分布为Gamma分布拟合效果最好,呈现左偏;CK径阶分布为正态分布拟合效果最好,呈现左偏。T₅、T₈林分12 cm及以上径阶林木株数百分比分别比CK高9.02%、20.17%;目标树经营改变了草本层群落物种组成,促进草本层植物多样性提高。T8草本层优势度、均匀度、丰富度较好,Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou均匀度指数均表现为T₈>T₅>CK,而Margalef指数为T₈>CK>T₅。综合来看,目标树经营促进华北落叶松人工林林分生长并提高了草本层植物多样性,T₈经营效果更好。     

Vegetation community and factors that affect the woody species composition of riparian forests growing in an urbanizing landscape along the Chao Phraya River,central Thailand

Improved knowledge of the environmental factors that affect woody composition is urgently required for species conservation in riparian zones of urbanizing landscapes. We investigated the environmental factors influencing tree abundance and regeneration in diverse forest types growing in the riparian area of an urbanizing landscape along the Chao Phraya River. We established 252 0.1-ha circular plots in remnant forest patches along 372 km of the river. Cluster analysis was applied to classify the forest types. The relationships between environmental variables and tree abundance were assessed with ordination analysis, and generalized linear models were used to assess seedling/sapling abundance. The cluster analysis revealed five forest types, including floodplain forest with three sub-forest types, swamp forest, and mangrove forest. The ordination indicated that tree abundance in the floodplain forest was positively affected by distance to the ocean and the proportion of forested area. Swamp forest was positively influenced by the proportion of urbanized area and mean rainfall. Mangrove forest was negatively related to distance to the river. Seedling/sapling abundance of the dominant species in the floodplain forests was positively affected by lowland plain topography and negatively affected by the proportion of urbanized area, whereas swamp and mangrove forest species were positively influenced by the proportion of urbanized area and estuarine topography. Mature tree density influenced seedling/sapling abundance of all forest types. Tree abundance and regeneration of the riparian landscape was prevented by the urbanized area, floodplain, estuarine topography, and mature tree densities in remnant forests. These results suggest that remnant forest patches of conserved riparian forests along the urbanized landscape of the Chao Phraya River must be protected and the factors determining their colonization must be considered to enhance restoration practices.     

Comparing landscape scale vegetation dynamics following recent disturbance in climatically similar sites in California and the Mediterranean basin

A long line of inquiry on the notion of ecological convergence has compared ecosystem structure and function between areas that are evolutionarily unrelated but under the same climate regime. Much of this literature has focused on quantifying the degree to which animal morphology or plant physiognomy is alike between disjunct areas. An important property of ecosystems is their behavior following disturbance. Yet, this aspect of ecosystems has not been investigated in a comparative study of convergence. If different ecosystems are under similar environmental controls, then one would predict that the rates and patterns of response to disturbance would also be similar. The objective of this study is to compare landscape dynamics following disturbance using spatiotemporal models to quantify vegetation change in Mediterranean ecosystems found in California and Israel. We model the process of tree and shrub regeneration at the landscape scale in two similar study sites in Israel (Mount Meron) and California (Hasting Nature Reserve). During the periods studied (1964-1992 for Israel and 1971-1995 for California), average annual change in tree cover was 5 times larger in Israel than in California. Based on multiple regression models, differences were found in the relative importance of specific variables predicting vegetation change. In Hastings (California), initial tree cover accounted for most of the explained variability in 1995 tree cover (partial R² = 0.71), while in Meron (Israel), grazing type and intensity, topography indices, and initial vegetation each accounted for about a third of the explained variability. These findings support the notion that traits such as regeneration pattern and rate, both at the individual level and at the landscape level, were largely affected by the human land use history of the region.     

Associations of Bird Species Richness and Community Composition with Local and Landscape-scale Environmental Factors in Borneo

A comprehensive understanding of variables associated with spatial differences in community composition is essential to explain and predict biodiversity over landscape scales. In this study, spatial patterns of bird diversity in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, were examined and associated with local-scale (habitat structure and heterogeneity) and landscape-scale (logging, slope position and elevation) environmental variables. Within the study area (c. 196 km²) local habitat structure and heterogeneity varied considerably, largely due to logging. In total 9747 individuals of 177 bird species were recorded. Akaike's information criterion (AIC) revealed that the best explanatory models of bird community similarity and species richness included both local- and landscape-scale environmental variables. Important local-scale variables included liana abundance, fern cover, sapling density, tree density, dead wood abundance and tree architecture, while important landscape-scale variables were elevation, logging and slope position. Geographic distance between sampling sites was not significantly associated with spatial variation in either species richness or similarity. These results indicate that deterministic environmental processes, as opposed to dispersal-driven stochastic processes, primarily structure bird assemblages within the spatial scale of this study and confirm that highly variable local habitat measures can be effective means of predicting landscape-scale community patterns.