Protein nutrition in red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Red deer can adjust to seasonal change of forage quality to maintain a relatively constant crude protein level (21.1±4.0, 14.7±1.0, 11.1±1.1 and 6.5±0.8 in spring, summer, fall and winter, respectively). Apparent protein digestibility is variable from −99.9% to 97.5% depending upon season and forage type. True protein digestibility is 99%. Digestion of protein is significantly influenced by phenolics in diets. Minimum digestible energy intake of 153.5 kcal/kg^0.75/day is necessary to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Red deer recycles 18–85% of the urea produced and urea kinetic parameters (urea pool size urea entry rate and urea excretion rate) are correlated to plasma urea concentration. Rumen NH₃-N production changes with season, but seasonal changes in other NH₃-N kinetic parameters (NH₃-N concentration, NH₃-N pool size and NH₃-N outflow rate) are in dispute. Protein metabolism may be promoted in response to cold stress. Endogenous urinary nitrogen is 0.09 (red deer) and 0.16 g N/kg^0.75·day (elk). and metabolic fecal nitrogen is 5.58 g N/kg dry-matter intake. Protein requirements ranges from 100 g/kg DM to 170 g/kg DM for red deer of various ages and physiological stages. In conclusion, the knowledge of protein nutrition of red deer is limited. Much work is urgently needed in metabolism and requirements of protein before the appropriate feeding standard of red deer is coming.     

Effects of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on wind damage to coniferous trees in subalpine forest of central Japan

We evaluated the effect of bark stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon), and subsequent wood decay, on tree fall in a coniferous forest on Mt Ohdaigahara in central Japan from July to September 2006. This valuable primeval coniferous forest is declining because of bark stripping. Broken trunks of Abies homolepis and Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis had more serious decay and larger bark-stripping wounds on the trunk than standing trees, suggesting that bark stripping causes trunk decay and results in broken trunks and uprooting by typhoons.     

The nutritional composition and digestion of plants foraged by red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus) in northeast China

We studied species of plants foraged by red deer in the Muling forest region of northeastern China during January 2014 and 2015. We focused on nutritional composition, energy content, and the digestibility of these plants. Crude protein content varied by plant species.Average crude protein content was 7.5 ± 1.7% of dry matter, ranging from 4.5 to 10.3%. Crude lipid content did not vary by species and averaged 7 ± 1.5%(range5.4–9.8%). Non-fiber carbohydrate(NFC) and neutral detergent fiber(NDF) content varied broadly with average values being 20.1 ± 4.8%(range 13.5–28.8%) and64.7 ± 5.9%(range 53.5–71.8%), respectively. Energy content ranged from 16.7 to 19.7 k J/g. Average dry matter digestibility(DMD) was 46.1 ± 4.8%, with a range from38.7 to 54.6%. Only three plants, Saussurea manshurica,Aralia elata and Equisetum hyemale exhibited DMD [ 50%. NFC content explained most of the variation in energy content(r = 0.451). In contrast, energy content was inversely related to NDF(r =-0.443). There was no correlation between crude protein, crude lipid, and energy content(r_(protein)= 0.004, r_(lipid)=-0.190). S. manshurica,A. elata and E. hyemale had higher NFC and lower NDF content. Thus, these species offered the greatest nutritional value for wintering red deer in the study area. Along with high CP and NFC content, Taxus cuspidate also had high lignin content, and was thus, considered a good forage species for red deer.     

Altitudinal differences in bark stripping by sika deer in the subalpine coniferous forest of Mt. Fuji

Deer expansion is a growing concern for forest ecosystem management. In Japan, upward expansion to subalpine and alpine areas has reached alarming proportions in recent years. We examined bark stripping by sika deer along an altitudinal gradient in the subalpine coniferous forest at three altitude ranges (1800-2000 m, 2000-2200 m, and 2200-2400 m) on the southern slope of Mt. Fuji. We tested differences in densities and diameter at breast height (DBH) of trees and those with bark-stripped stems of all tree species among the three altitude ranges. Then, we compared the relative densities of deer, based on pellet counts, to determine the impact of deer in relation to deer use and forest stand patterns across the altitudinal range studied. The results of the study show that differences in bark stripping by sika deer depended largely on the elevation and the species. Larger stems were sparsely distributed in the lowest elevation zone between 1800 and 2000 m. The relative density of deer was highest in the areas exhibiting high bark-stripping intensity on small regenerating trees of the dominant coniferous species, Abies veitchii, and on broadleaf species. In the highest elevation zone between 2200 and 2400 m, smaller stems were densely distributed, and the relative deer density was lowest where the bark-stripping intensity on small stems was lower for all three species studied. The damage to subalpine tree stems corresponded to the availability of palatable tree species with a small diameter, as reflected by the successional stage along the elevational gradient of subalpine forest on Mt. Fuji. These results suggest that the continuous impact of bark stripping on the dominant tree species might cause severe changes in forest succession.     

Development of a method for forest cafeteria tests for evaluating chemical deterrents against bark stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)

Damage caused by sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) is a serious problem in commercial and environmental (non-harvested) forests in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Cafeteria tests in forests may be useful for evaluating the efficacy of chemical deterrents against bark stripping by deer. To develop a method for forest cafeteria tests in the continuous snow cover period, two experiments were carried out. In the experiments, logs were produced from tree trunks, and used as carriers of chemical deterrents. Carriers were installed in forests and fed to deer. The first experiment was to find suitable sites and installation methods for carriers. Criteria for the local suitability and the installation methods were as follows: a) Sites where deer are active should be selected; b) Carriers should be installed along actively used deer trails; c) Installation sites of carriers should be changed in response to deer movement; d) Carriers should be produced from tree species that deer naturally prefer; and e) Each carrier should be partially buried in the snow. The second experiment evaluated the feasibility of a cafeteria test method based on the results of the first experiment. The method was used for 13 sets of the cafeteria test, in which the deterrent effectiveness of 5 chemicals (wood tar, rosin, wood vinegar, and 2 pyroligneous liquors) was examined. We obtained results from all the sets. The chemicals tested did not deter bark stripping by deer. Nevertheless, the method used in the present study was practical for the cafeteria tests.     

Variation in winter daily range area of red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus) based on DNA extracted from fecal samples

With environmental change and increased human activity,wild red deer(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus)populations and habitat area continue to decrease.Red deer is a main prey species of Amur tiger(Panthera tigris altaica).Factors affecting red deer winter home range in the Wanda montains of northeast China are not well understood.In this study,we aimed to better document red deer daily ranges to support conservation of red deer.A second objective was to develop a practical research method combining macro-and micro-technology for home range research on a variety of rare or endangered wild species.We collected 105 fresh fecal samples of red deer in three different periods during winter from December 2012 to March 2013 in the Wandashan region,Heilongjiang Province,China.Individual and sex identities were analyzed based on fecal DNA using microsatellite DNA.We used samples from deer farms for correction and validation of our identifications from field samples.We used a combination of molecular scatology,3S techniques(GPS),and direct observation to estimate winter daily range areas.Based on eleven microsatellite loci,we identified 18 individuals,10 females and 8 males,with a correction factor of 1.00 and sex ratio of 1:0.8.The mean(±SE)number of alleles was 5.1±0.41,and mean polymorphism information content was 0.63±0.03.Expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.46 to 0.81,with a mean of 0.69±0.03,and mean observed heterozygosity was 0.73±0.07.Sizes of mean daily ranges were 26.1±1.1 ha in December,89.3±1.6 ha in January,and 67.5±1.9 ha in March,indicating the following trend for daily range area:middle winter>late winter>early winter.Mean daily range area was insignificantly larger for males than for females.Estimated winter daily ranges were similar to those reported for Europe.Our combination of macro-and micro-technology proved useful for estimating winter home range areas of red deer.     

Impact of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on subalpine coniferous forests in central Japan

We investigated the effect of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on forest regeneration in subalpine coniferous forests on Mt. Ohdaigahara and in the Ohmine Mountains of central Japan. Bark stripping by sika deer occurred in five major tree species: Abies homolepis; Abies Veitchii; Tsuga diversifolia; Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis; and Chamaecyparis obtusa. The percentage of damaged trees on Mt. Ohdaigahara was higher than in the Ohmine Mountains, probably because of the higher deer density. On Mt. Ohdaigahara, the DBH distributions of stems for P. jezoensis var. hondoensis, A. homolepis, T. diversifolia andC. obtusa were bell-shaped with fewer smaller and larger trees. On the other hand, in the Ohmine Mountains the distributions for P. jezoensis var. hondoensis and A. Veitchii showed a reverse-J shaped with more smaller trees. Larger overstory conifers on Mt. Ohdaigahara were killed by bark stripping when 100% barked, although in the Ohmine Mountains ca. 50% of the trees survived even when 100% barked. After the disappearance of the overstory conifers on Mt. Ohdaigahara, the dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, expanded into the forest floor due to changes in light reaching the forest floor. Since S. nipponica is the main forage of deer in this area, this increase caused a corresponding increase in the deer population, which in turn, could cause a further decline in the coniferous forests.     

Wintering habitat evaluation of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in forest area of Northeastern China

Six ultimate factors (forage abundance, horizontal sheltering class, distance from human disturbance, snow depth, tree coverage, and edge effect) of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) were investigated in eastern Heilongjiang Province during winter from 1988 to 1991. On the basis of analysis of field data, we evaluated winter habitat conditions of Red deer. The results showed as follows: the wintering habitat quality of Red deer in poplar-birch stands was excellent in the Wanda Mountains, and was moderate in shrub-woods and Korean pine seed stands. According to habitat index (HI) values, the habitat quality in poplar-birch stands (HI=0.8185) was superior to that in shrub-woods (HI=0.4825) and in Korean pine seed stands (HI=0.4385). The wintering habitat quality of Red deer in the Wanda Mountains was superior to that of Dailing Forestry Region. According to the current situations of forestry areas in northeastern China, strengthening habitat management was important for the conservation and management of Red deer population in the next decades. This subject is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province. (Responsible Editor: Zhu Hong)     

The Asian Wapiti (Cervus elaphus)

The authors visited some deer farms in Northeastern China in 1991 and 1993. The seven subspecies of Asian Wapiti (Cervus elaphus) were detected by observing the animal’s appearance and analyzing the video information. The status of taxonomy research in China was also discussed.     

Red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) management in the dehesa system in Central Extremadura,Spain

In this paper we report the results of a study on the suitability of the dehesa (Mediterranean woodlands) as habitat of red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in a closed country estate of about 4300 ha total surface situated in the San Pedro Mountain, in Central Extremadura, Spain. We have described the deer management with respect to habitat, exploitation mode, deer feeding, population control and production of goods and services. It is concluded that the dehesa system is a rich natural resource that preserves and improves the degraded environment.

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Resumen En el presente trabajo se estudia la dehesa como hábitat del ciervo (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). Se ha tomado como referencia una finca cerrada de 4300 ha de ST situada en la Sierra de San Pedro, en Extremadura, España. Se describen los sistemas de gestión actuales del ciervo en cuanto a hábitat, modo de explotación, alimentación, control de población y producción de bienes y servicios. Concluyendo con la necesidad de fomentar este tipo de explotaciones cinegéticas de dehesa que ayudan a conservar y potenciar el medio ambiente en zonas despobladas y deprimidas

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Abbreviations CS collected surface - DMFCU deedmixed feed cattle units - Fi final inventory - FS fertilized surface - Ii Initial inventory - K Potassium - N Nitrogen - NBF number of breeding females - NBFIi number of breeding females of initial inventory - NBFR number of breeding females released - NBM number of breeding males - NBMIi number of breeding males of initial inventory - NBMR number of breeding males released - NCCR number of captive calves released - NCFi number of calves of final inventory - NCR number of calves released - NFR number of female renovation - NYMR number of young males released - NYFR number of young females released - P phosphorus - PP permanent Pastures - pts pesetas - QS Quercus stalks - RDED resources directly eaten by deer - SPOM selected hunted down poor quality males - SS sowed surface - TN total needs of deer - TNR total number released - UAS useable agrarian surface - WB wooded brush - WQS wooded Quercus surface - WS wooded surface     

Effects of heavy,repeated bark stripping by Cervus nippon on survival of Abies veitchii in a subalpine coniferous forest in central Japan

The management of deer impacts on forested lands requires quantification of the negative factors(e.g.,bark stripping) on tree survival in relation to other ecological variables(e.g.,competition from neighboring trees).This study measured the effects of bark stripping by sika deer,Cervus nippon,and competition among trees on the survival of Abies veitchii in a subalpine coniferous forest in central Japan over 12 years.Most of the trees subjected to bark stripping by deer were small(10 cm in diameter at breast height);however,some trees were stripped repeatedly.Although light bark stripping did not strongly influence tree survival after 12 years,heavily stripped stems(i.e., 65% of the stem circumference stripped) were severely affected.The effect on longevity for each tree after bark stripping was explained by maximum bark stripping intensity during the study period,rather than initial bark stripping intensity.When 85% of the stem circumference had been stripped,survival rates decreased.Bark stripping influenced survival rates much more than competition from neighboring trees.Because bark stripping occurred repeatedly,frequent measurements are important to grasp the full effects caused by this action.Heavy bark stripping of a stem enhances tree mortality.Thus,management of bark stripping is an essential element of stand maintenance and species composition in subalpine coniferous forests in Japan.     

Protein Nutrition in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

Reddeerareimportantbiggameanimals,distributedwidelyinAsia,EuropeandNorthAmerica.Inrecentyears,thefarmingofreddeerisbecominganimportantformoflivestockdiversificationwhichtapsnewmar-ketsandpastureresources.Throughouttheworld,morethanl,l86,9OOreddeerarereare…     

Resistance of larches to bark stripping by sika deer in Hokkaido,northern Japan

Resistance of the Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) (Lk), the Kurile larch (L. gmelinii var. japonica) (Lg), and their F₁ hybrid (Lg × Lk) to bark stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) were studied in a forest in Hokkaido by cafeteria tests. Several sets of logs prepared from Lk, Lg, and Lg × Lk were fed to the deer. The stripped areas of logs significantly differed between the Lk/Lg set and the Lk/Lg × Lk set (P 0.05). The resistances of Lg and Lg × Lk to bark stripping was stronger than Lk. This result was similar to those of previous studies on gray-sided voles and mountain hares in Hokkaido.     

Over-winter weight dynamics in supplementally fed free-ranging sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Continuous body weight dynamics in supplementally fed free-ranging sika deer (Cervus nippon) during the three consecutive overwinters (from January to April), 1992–1994 were surveyed. Almost all individuals lost weight continuously throughout each winter (adult deer 5–13%; young deer 3–19%) and several deer lost weight even in April. Weight gain after loss began in the mid-April when ambient temperature increased and when plant growth began. Weight dynamics varied according to sex, age and reproductive status. Adult deer showed significant large weight loss than the young. Young deer lost weight (calves 18±11 g/day, yearling and two-year-olds 27±29 g/day) more slowly than the adults (65±23 g/day). Following this study of over-winter body weight dynamics, it seems that early springs are the most critical periods for the survival of free-ranging sika deer because of their poor nutritional condition. A portion of this report was presented at the 106th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society (1994).     

Wintering Habitat Evaluation of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) in Forest Area of Northeastern China

IntroductionTheprofessionalsworkofwildlifemanagementisatargetforpopulationmanagement,butmoreandmoreprofessionalsworkersareinterestedinthemanagementofthewildlifehabitat(Belley,1984).ItisoneofessentiafworksforustoappraisehabitatwiththescientificmanagementontheReddeerpopulation.Soitisusefultoconservation,developmentandutilizationoftheReddeerinananimal'sperspective.Sincethe1970'smanyscientistshavebeenstudyingthehabitatevaluationfordeer.Severalmodelsandmethodssuchasthelineardiagram,thematrixmodel…     

Types of bark beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infestation in spruce forest stands affected by air pollution, bark beetle outbreak and honey fungus (Armillaria mellea)

583 spruce stands in an area affected by air pollution and bark beetle outbreak in Eastern Slovakia were studied in 1996. According to bark beetle infestation of dominant and codominant trees, stands were classified into following types of spruce stand decline:Ips typographus-A,Ips typographus-B,Polygraphus poligraphus, I. typographus/P. poligraphus—A,I. typographus/P. poligraphus—B. The presence of attacked trees in forest edges, bark beetle spots and forest interior was the key important factor for the classification. Data from forest inventory and forest management evidence together with data on types of spruce stands decline were used in further analyses. Results shows that the distribution of forest stands classified into different types or uninfested stands is related mainly to host size and site quality. The percentage of spruce, exposition of stands and stand density showed significant effects. The mechanisms of spreading of studied bark beetle outbreak could be explained by direct effects of stress of trees caused by an abrupt increase of level of solar irradiation and by weakening of trees by the honey fungus.     

A geostatistical approach to spatial density distributions of sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) cause serious damage to trees in Japanese forests. Browsing, bark stripping, and tree abrasion with antlers account for 50% of total wildlife damage over the past decade. The extent of forest damage depends on deer population density. We determined the spatial distribution of sika deer population density on Mt. Hiko (Fukuoka Prefecture, southwestern Japan). We also investigated changes in population density distribution over time. Determinants of population density were examined, with particular emphasis on the hunting cull. Deer densities in 1999 and 2004 were estimated by fecal pellet counts at 86 sites. We used kriging, a geostatistical technique that is a component of geographic information systems, to interpolate site-specific point data over large areas of landscape. Mapping procedures showed that high-density (≥30.0 deer km^?2) and low-density sections of landscape (≤10.0 deer km^?2) decreased in areal extent between 1999 and 2004. Contractions of high-density sections were attributable to intensive hunting. In low-density landscape sections, reduced hunting pressure allowed increased persistence of adult animals whose high fecundity led to population growth and higher deer densities. Landscape tracts with medium deer densities (10.0–30.0 deer km^?2) expanded, adding further difficulties to the task of wildlife management. Given the scale of the problems caused by deer, it is clear that reliable estimates of population size across space and time are essential components of the wildlife manager’s toolbox.     

Pine needle consumption and bark stripping by sheep grazing annual pastures in young stands of widely spaced Pinus radiata and P. pinaster

The consumption of the pine needles and the stripping of bark by sheep grazing annual pastures in three open stands of P. radiata and one of P. pinaster were measured. The P. radiata were four years old and the densities were 250, 500 and 750 trees ha^-1. The P. pinaster included two, three and four year-old trees and the density was 440 trees ha^–1.Needles were eaten immediately after the sheep were admitted and this continued throughout the year. Within ten weeks of the start of winter grazing, sheep stocked at 7–10 ha^–1 had eaten about half of the accessible needles on both species where densities were less than500 trees ha^–1. The estimated consumption was about 260 g sheep^–1 day^–1 for the P. radiata. Bark stripping then commenced and continued throughout spring and summer on most plots. In some plots at low tree density, bark was stripped from more than 35% of the trees. In denser stands, needle consumption per tree was less and bark was stripped from less than 5% of the trees.Bark damage was most common on the smaller trees, and severity of stripping was negatively correlated with tree size. Of all the trees with bark damage, 22% of the P. pinaster and 14% of the P. radiata had more than half of the stem circumference stripped. A number of these will probably suffer both stem distortion and growth retardation, and some may die.Methods of reducing the incidence of bark damage are discussed.     

Occurrence of pathogens in associated living bark beetles (Col., Scolytidae) from different spruce stands in Austria

Pathogen occurrence was studied in 16?099 adult specimens of 10 different bark beetle species, which live associated on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Beetles (mainly Ips typographus L. and Pityogenes chalcographus L.) were collected from 6 different localities in Austria (4 secondary spruce stands and 2 natural forest type stands, 9 sampling plots in total) in elevations between 400?m and 1600?m. Various viral, protozoan, and fungal pathogens could be diagnosed with a light microscope in the examined beetles. Numerous pathogen species were known from former studies, some pathogens were totally new or could be found in a new host species beside their type host. The most dominant pathogen species were Protozoa, Gregarina cf. typographi, Malamoeba cf. scolyti, and Chytridiopsis cf. typographi. Over the whole investigation period, the highest pathogen diversity with eight pathogen species was found in I. typographus. Differences were observed in the pathogen complex of each beetle species from the different collection sites and in different years of investigation. Several species showed an overlapping in their host range and infected various bark beetle species. Furthermore, pathogen occurrence and prevalence differed in bark beetles from 4 different sampling plots in an area (one locality) within a distance of a few kilometres.     

Bark stripping by sika deer on veitch fir related to stand age, bark nutrition, and season in northern Mount Fuji district, central Japan

We carried out this study to clarify the relationships between the seasonal changes of bark stripping and food quality, and between bark-stripping intensity and bark nutrition with age of veitch fir (Abies veitchii) by sika deer (Cervus nippon) in the northern Mount Fuji district, from June 2000 to July 2003. We found that sika deer gnawed and ate all of the bark stripped, and a seasonal change in bark stripping occurred from December to May or June with a peak in March–April. The stripping period largely overlapped with the periods of low food availability and poor food nutrition (indicated by fecal chemical component index) of sika deer, from January to April. Both bark nutritional quality and bark-stripping intensity related to stand age and tree size of veitch fir negatively. Consequently, bark-stripping intensity related to bark nutritional quality positively. February is the worst forage period in terms of both quantity (due to deep snow) and quality (indicated by fecal chemical components). There was a time lag of 1 to 2 months in the peak of bark stripping in March–April when compared with the poor forage period in February. This time lag may suggest that sika deer need more nutritious and easily digested food from March due to increased nutrient demands that result from depleted body condition in both sexes, gestation of pregnant females, and the recovery of active metabolism.