Gravity-fed drip irrigation system for hilly terraces of the northwest Himalayas

Development of small tanks lined with low-density polyethylene film has provided irrigation facilities on the upland areas of hills on a limited scale. To utilise the scarcely available water, a gravity drip irrigation system was designed for the hilly terraces. The system had the capability to provide uniform emitter discharge throughout the command area spread on several terraces with varying elevations and irregular shapes. The design includes the estimation of the command area of the tank (runoff or low discharge spring-fed) using data on rainfall, evaporation and crop water requirement, and the hydraulics of the drip irrigation system. A useful and more pertinent star configuration of microtube layout with one lateral line feeding four rows was devised which had some advantages over the traditional layouts in terms of achieving the desired discharge rate, better handling of the system, appropriate water delivery, adjustment in spatial head variation due to friction loss in pipes as well as field slopes, and economic factors. Pilot testing of the system showed that the system worked efficiently, with field emission uniformity above 90%. Although the design criteria were developed for the topographical and climatic conditions of the mid-hills of the north-west Himalayas, they can easily be adapted for other locations.     

适合发展中国家小农户的低成本滴灌系统

在缺水地区,滴灌是节约用水的最有效途径,但其成本对发展中国家的小农户来说难以承受。通过以下方法可使滴灌成本降低９０ ％ ：（１） 使滴灌管道可以移动,这样每条滴管可灌到１０ 行而不是１ 行。（２） 用热针冲压出０ ．７０ ｍ ｍ 的孔。（３） 用价值３ 美元带有滤布的２０ Ｌ 容器,取代昂贵的过滤系统。这种低成本系统已在尼泊尔山区和印度的安德哈拉·普拉德什桑树种植地进行了现场试验,其滴头流量的均匀度达７３ ％ ～８４ ％ 。这种低成本滴灌系统可能为半干旱地区以及山区的小农户广泛采用。     

Field distribution of pesticides applied via a drip irrigation system

Summary A field study was conducted on the application of herbicides via drip irrigation systems. The parameters studied were the rate and frequency of water application. Two herbicides were examined: bromacil — readily soluble and mobile in soils, and napropamide — with low solubility and only slight mobility. Application of these compounds in the field indicated that an increased water application rate results in greater lateral movement. After several weeks of irrigation, surface concentrations of both compounds were found at 30–50 cm from the emitter. Daily irrigation resulted in greater surface accumulation than weekly irrigation, where accumulation deep in the soil profile was found to occur.Contribution No. 923-E, 1983 series, Institute of Soils and Water, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel     

改进CERES-Maize模型在玉米膜下滴灌模式下的适用性

针对CERES-Maize模型没有覆膜处理模块而无法从机理上实现对覆膜玉米生长发育及产量形成过程进行模拟的问题,依据作物生长发育的有效积温原理,利用膜地增温对有效气积温的补偿效应,量化覆膜地温对气温的补偿值,改进模型气象模块中的气温输入数据,同时将模型中影响腾发量及水量平衡计算的冠层能量消光系数K调整为0.5,构建了适宜于膜下滴灌的改进型CERES-Maize模型,并依据2014和2015年膜下滴灌玉米田间试验数据对改进模型进行验证.结果表明覆膜地积温对气积温的增温补偿系数C_c:播种-出苗期为0.45,出苗~抽雄前期为0.20;随着K降低,地上生物量与籽粒产量的相对误差绝对值ARE降低并趋近于0;改进后的模型能够较好地模拟覆膜玉米开花期天数、成熟期天数、收获期地上生物量和籽粒产量,其模拟值和实测值的ARE分别为0.58%,0.37%,7.65%和16.95%,相对均方根误差RRMSE分别为0.84%,0.51%,8.75%和17.50%.     

Using a subsurface drip irrigation system to measure crop water use

Procedures are presented for determining crop water use and crop coefficients for a row crop, using a neutron scattering probe with an efficient subsurface drip irrigation system. One procedure is called the slope-projection method, and the other is called a covariance procedure. Field tests were conducted with full-season, narrow-row cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) on a well-drained, sandy soil in a semiarid environment over a 5-year period. The goal was to improve automated irrigation scheduling, by relating evapotranspiration (ET) to growing degree days (GDD). The result, using a Penman–Monteith reference ET, was an average midseason crop coefficient of 1.11, with a standard error of 0.056. With class A pan evaporation as the reference ET, the average midseason crop coefficient was 0.877, with a standard error of 0.029. A fifth-order polynomial for the pan-based crop coefficient as a function of GDD was programmed into a controller and used successfully to irrigate a field automatically for one season.Communicated by A. Kassam     

过滤后黄河水对滴灌系统的影响

为探明黄河水经孔径为0.05 mm(300目)过滤器过滤后进行滴灌的可能性,模拟大田滴灌研究了黄河水滴灌条件下4种滴灌带(Nf0.72,Nf1.60,Nf2.20,Dy1.38)不同位置流量变化规律,滴灌系统平均相对流量Q_r与流量变异系数C_v、系统均匀度C_u变化规律及相关关系.结果表明:黄河水对滴头的堵塞早期呈快速发育状态,不同类型引黄滴灌系统平均相对流量随灌水次数的增加呈平缓下降—快速下降—平缓下降的规律,均在相对流量75%附近快速下降;滴头流量变异系数在系统运行初期线性增大,之后平缓变化,且与系统平均相对流量具有很好的线性关系(p<0.001);当系统平均相对流量Q_r大于75%时,滴灌系统克里斯琴森均匀度系数C_u与Ln Q_r呈线性关系(R²=0.790 9),因此,引黄滴灌系统可通过系统平均相对流量Q_r来判断系统均匀度C_u,以方便及时快速了解系统堵塞状况,以便对其运行管理进行决策.     

Distribution of herbicides in soil in a simulated drip irrigation system

Summary The behavior of two herbicides (bromacil and napropamide) applied to a Mediterranean red loam soil (hamra) from a point source is presented. Neither herbicide was degraded during the period of the study. Bromacil was only slightly adsorbed by the soil (K _d – 0.1 ml/g; Fig. 1) and was evenly distributed in the soil volume when applied at a constant concentration (Fig. 3). The distribution of napropamide, which was adsorbed by the soil (K _d – 1.2 ml/g; Fig. 1), was restricted to the zone immediately around the emitter (Fig. 3). Application of the herbicides to previously wetted soils increased the vertical and lateral movement of both herbicides (Fig. 4). Leaching of the chemicals was more pronounced for bromacil than for napropamide (Fig. 5). Cycles of irrigation and evaporation at two irrigation frequencies demonstrated that bromacil can be leached quickly from the emitter zone whereas naproparnide will move only slowly into the soil volume (Fig. 8).Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel. No. 289-E, 1980 Series     

Spatial root distribution of mature apple trees under drip irrigation system

The study was undertaken in order to quantify the effect of 12-year irrigation by drip emitters placed on one side of the tree trunk on the rooting pattern of Gloster apple trees (Malus domestica Borkh) grafted on M26 rootstock under the conditions of south-west Poland. The orchard was established in 1994 and since 1995 was drip irrigated under three treatments: V0 - without irrigation (control), V1 - intensive irrigation, and V2 - economical irrigation. In March 2007, after 12 years of irrigation, a profile trench observation method was used to map the number and the location of root distribution in clay loam (Luvisol) soil.The root system architecture was largely affected by irrigation. In case of the trees irrigated intensively (V1), the study showed asymmetry in the distribution of roots of diameter <1 mm and 1-3 mm. In V1, shallow root system, concentrated in the wetted zone developed on the irrigated side of the tree, where on the side of the tree trunk opposite the emitter trees developed significantly larger numbers of roots, which penetrated deeper soil layers. There were no statistically significant differences in the number of roots between both sides of the tree trunk under the treatment with economical irrigation (V2). Moreover, spatial roots distribution over the entire soil profile was found to be the most uniform compared to the other experimental treatments (V0 and V1). Finally, the study examined the relationship between root system and yield. Obtained results showed that in the 3-year period less frequent water application (V2) resulted in the highest yield.     

滴灌系统合理选配净化设施与设备问题的探讨

根据微灌规范对首部净化系统技术标准规定的要求，通过举例计算，分析探讨了净化设施与设备之间承担净化任务的相互匹配关系，以及如何合理选配净化设施与设备的问题。     

温室番茄滴灌灌水指标试验研究

研究了日光温室中番茄的需水量、需水规律、产量与耗水量的关系。对日光温室番茄进行了滴灌灌水制度的研究。根据番茄不同生育期的生理特性及其需水特性确定其相应适宜的土壤含水率范围（占田间持水量的百分比）为：苗期45％～55％，开花坐果期55～75％，坐果期65-85％。不同生育期的灌水定额为：苗期10～15mm，开花坐果期15-25mm，结果期20-30mm。     

SIMIS: the FAO decision support system for irrigation scheme management

Scheme irrigation management information system (SIMIS) is a decision support system for managing irrigation schemes. It can be used either as a management tool or as a training tool. The data needed for the technical and administrative management of the scheme can be stored, edited and displayed in various forms. They can then be used for helping in water management, calculating irrigation requirements, developing irrigation layouts, scheduling water deliveries, and keeping records of water consumption. The SIMIS approach is based on simple water balance models with capacity constraints. The user can simulate management alternatives, assess the results and try out new alternatives, until a satisfactory solution is found. SIMIS also helps in the administrative aspects of managing irrigation schemes (accounting, calculating water charges, controlling maintenance activities) and in assessing their performance.     

A comparison between low-cost drip irrigation,conventional drip irrigation,and hand watering in Nepal

Access to irrigation water is a critical element in meeting the food demands of a rapidly increasing population in the Middle Mountains of Nepal. The recent introduction of low-cost drip irrigation (LCDI) to Nepal represents an affordable means of expanding irrigation into rainfed areas, thereby increasing land productivity. This study presents a comparison of the effects on soil volumetric water content and cauliflower yield of three irrigation methods (LCDI, conventional drip irrigation (CDI), and hand watering) operated under three different irrigation regimes in the Jhikhu Khola Watershed, Nepal. Irrigation regime R₁ supplied only half of the estimated crop water requirement, characterized by small volumes applied on alternate days. The other two irrigation regimes (regimes R₂ and R₃), supplied the full estimated crop water requirement, however differed in application timing. Small volumes were applied frequently (daily) under regime R₂, whereas in regime R₃, greater water volumes were applied less frequently (alternate days for the majority of experiment). Although differences in the soil volumetric water content (SVWC) were present between the irrigation methods, differences were not consistent between the three irrigation regimes. Regardless of irrigation regime, cumulative cauliflower yields were lowest under conventional drip irrigation. In contrast, there were significant differences in cauliflower yield between LCDI and hand watering between irrigation regimes. Irrigation regime R₁ resulted in lower SVWC and lower cumulative yields than regimes R₂ and R₃, however, water-use efficiency was greater under regime R₁ than under regimes R₂ and R₃. These results suggest that LCDI and hand watering are both viable options to increase food production in water scarce, small-scale farming in Nepal, however, long-term economic and labour benefits are greater under LCDI.     

Design logic for deficit drip irrigation of coconut trees

This paper demonstrates the potential productive and economic advantages of designing for deficit (or under-) irrigation of selected crops in water short areas. The example presented is for the supplemental irrigation of rainfed coconut trees in the state of Kerala, India. In particular, the productive and economic advantages of designing drip systems for deficit irrigation as compared to standard drip systems designed for full irrigation to meet potential evapotranspiration is demonstrated.Paper developed in conjunction with the Transfer Course on Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation System Design and Layout, 7–25 January, 1991, at the Center for Water Resources Development and Management, Calicut, Kerala, India. This is a sub-activity of USAID's Indo-US Project, carried out by Louis Berger Intl. Inc. and Water and Power Consultancy Services Ltd.     

Gravity-fed drip irrigation design procedure for a single-manifold subunit

A simple procedure was developed for the design of low-cost, gravity-fed, drip irrigation single-manifold subunits in hilly areas with laterals to one or both sides of the manifold. The allowable pressure head variation in the manifold and laterals is calculated individually for different pressure zones, and the manifold subunit design is divided into independent processes for laterals and manifold. In the manifold design, a two-stage optimal design method is used. In the first design stage, the pipe cost is minimized and a set of optimal manifold pipe diameters is obtained. In the second design stage, a partial list of available diameters is prepared based on the calculated optimal diameters, and the lengths for available diameters and pressure head of every lateral location along the manifold are calculated. The size of each of the pressure sections is determined according to the pressure head distribution along the manifold. Using the proposed methodology, the minimum manifold pipe cost is obtained, and the target emission uniformity is satisfied for gravity-fed drip irrigation subunits.     

Management model for decision support when applying low quality water in irrigation

Use of low quality water for irrigation of food crops is an important option to secure crop productivity in dry regions, alleviate water scarcity and recycle nutrients, but it requires assessment of adverse effects on health and environment. In the EU-project “SAFIR¹” a model system was developed that combines irrigation management with risk evaluation, building on research findings from the different research groups in the SAFIR project. The system applies to field scale irrigation management and aims at assisting users in identifying safe modes of irrigation when applying low quality water. The cornerstone in the model system is the deterministic “Plant-Soil-Atmosphere” model DAISY, which simulates crop growth, water and nitrogen dynamics and if required heavy metals and pathogen fate in the soil. The irrigation and fertigation module calculates irrigation and fertigation requirements based on DAISY's water and nitrogen demands. A Water Source Administration module keeps track of water sources available and their water quality, as well as water treatments, storage, and criteria for selection between different sources. At harvest, the soil concentrations of heavy metals and pathogens are evaluated and the risk to consumers and farmers assessed. Crop profits are calculated, considering fixed and variable costs of input and output. The user can run multiple “what-if” scenarios that include access to different water sources (including wastewater), water treatments, irrigation methods and irrigation and fertilization strategies and evaluate model results in terms of crop yield, water use, fertilizer use, heavy metal accumulation, pathogen exposure and expected profit. The management model system can be used for analysis prior to investments or when preparing a strategy for the season.     

一种滴灌带铺设装置

为适应在内陆省份棉花种植区推广棉田膜下滴灌技术的实际需要。由河北国农节水工程有限公司研制开发了一种与小型地膜覆盖、播种机配套使用的滴灌带铺设装置,经在河北省邢台地区实际应用。效果良好。它具有结构简单、易于制造、节省投资和铺膜质量可靠的优点。可由农民自己动手改装。本文以图文形式详细介绍了该装置的设计方法,为棉田膜下滴灌技术在内陆省份的推广应用提供了一个成功的经验和一种设计思路。     

用于滴灌的碟式分离机的动平衡

针对滴灌用黄河水泥沙碟式分离机的振动问题,采用影响系数法进行了分离机整机全速动平衡.转鼓装在分离机的平衡试验台上,在上、下轴承双测点进行平衡.当测点数N大于校正面数M时,方程为非正规复数线性方程组.采用共轭转置矩阵左乘原方程,求得所对应的复数正规方程组.在复数域用列主元消去法求解,在求得各校正面应加配重的复数结果后再转换成矢量输出,通过编程求得校正重量的最优近似解.分析了利用最小二乘法求解矛盾方程组最优近似解的问题.结果表明,用影响系数法对碟式分离机在工作转速下进行整机平衡,平衡后分离机振动大幅度下降,运转趋于平稳,实际效果明显.     

Online decision support for irrigation for farmers

Online decision support for irrigation has been available in Denmark since 1996. This paper describes an Internet implementation of a previous stand-alone PC-program; the Internet version has undergone several modifications and upgrades. The system has a morphological model for crop development based on temperature sums, and a hydrological model for calculating soil water balance. Weather data are supplied automatically from weather databases, precipitation data can be overrode by user inputs. Users can initiate the system with data on fields and crops, and add data on irrigations. Irrigation advice and explanation are provided in tables and graphics. The system had 322 active users in 2004 and 490 in 2005.     

玉米地下滴灌适宜出苗灌水定额试验研究

为探索解决地下滴灌玉米出苗难的问题,通过土箱试验,对内蒙古自治区具有典型代表性的3种土壤,开展了毛管铺设参数(滴头流量、埋深)和灌水定额对地下滴灌湿润半径的影响规律试验,结合玉米播种深度、水分向上及向下运移的距离及种子周围土壤含水量,研究了玉米适宜出苗灌水定额,以提高出苗率,指导实际生产.结果表明:按显著性水平0.05检验,土壤类型和灌水定额均对土壤湿润半径影响具有统计学意义,而滴头流量和埋深对湿润半径影响不具有统计学意义.在黏壤土中,玉米出苗灌水定额37.5~52.5 mm基本可满足毛管埋深25~35 cm的出苗要求;在壤土中,玉米出苗灌水定额37.5 mm左右基本可满足毛管埋深25~30 cm的出苗要求,灌水定额52.5 mm左右基本可满足埋深30~35 cm的出苗要求;在砂壤土中,灌水定额22.5~37.5 mm基本可满足毛管埋深约25 cm的玉米出苗要求,灌水定额52.5 mm基本可满足毛管埋深25~35 cm的玉米出苗要求.