Occupational swine exposure and Hepatitis E virus,Leptospira, Ascaris suum seropositivity and MRSA colonization in Austrian veterinarians, 2017–2018—A cross‐sectional study

We investigated the prevalence of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV), Leptospira and Ascaris suum (A. suum) seropositivity, and of nasal methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization among Austrian practising veterinarians, and assessed the association with occupational swine livestock exposure. The 261 participants completed a questionnaire on demographics, intensity of occupational swine livestock contact and glove use during handling animals and their secretions. Participants' blood samples were tested for HEV, Leptospira and A. suum seropositivity and nasal swabs cultured for MRSA. We compared swine veterinarians (defined as >3 swine livestock visits/week) to non‐swine veterinarians (≤3 swine livestock visits/week) with regard to the outcomes through calculating prevalence ratio (PR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Furthermore, the relationship between occupational swine livestock contact and the study outcomes was examined by age (</≥55 years) and glove usage. The prevalence of nasal MRSA colonization was 13.4% (95% CI: 9.3–17.6), of HEV seropositivity 20.8% (95% CI: 15.8–25.7) and A. suum seropositivity 44% (95% CI: 37.7–50.2). The highest anti‐leptospiral antibodies titres were 1:200 (L. hebdomadis) and 1:100 (L. autumnalis, L. caicola) found in three non‐swine veterinarians. Compared to non‐swine veterinarians, swine veterinarians were 1.9 (95% CI: 1.0–3.4) and 1.5 (95%CI: 1.0–2.3) times more likely HEV seropositive and A. suum seropositive, respectively, and 4.8 (95%CI: 2.5; 9.3) times more likely nasally colonized with MRSA. Among glove‐using veterinarians, occupational swine contact was no longer a determinant for HEV seropositivity (PR 1.6; 95% CI: 0.8–2.9). Similar was found for A. suum seropositivity, which was no longer associated with occupational swine livestock contact in the subgroup of glove using, ≥55‐year‐old veterinarians (PR: 1.07; 95% CI: 0.4–3.3). Our findings indicate that >3 occupational swine livestock visits per week is associated with HEV and A. suum seropositivity and nasal MRSA colonization and that glove use may play a putative preventive role in acquiring HEV and A. suum. Further analytical epidemiological studies have to prove the causality of these associations.     

Hepatitis E Virus Antibodies in Finnish Veterinarians

We investigated hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in Finnish veterinarians engaged in different practice specialties and evaluated the effect of different background factors on HEV exposure by examining total HEV antibodies in samples collected from the participants of the 2009 National Veterinary Congress in Helsinki, Finland. Finnish veterinarians commonly have total HEV antibodies with seroprevalence of 10.2%. Of the non‐veterinarians, 5.8% were seropositive. Increasing age was associated with HEV seropositivity, and, surprisingly, the highest HEV seroprevalence (17.8%) among veterinarians was detected among small animal practitioners. Although no positive correlation between swine contacts and HEV seropositivity was found, 22.7% of veterinarians who had had needle stick by a needle that had previously been injected into a pig versus 9.0% of those who had not were seropositive, even though the finding was statistically non‐significant (P = 0.07). Our results suggest that, although contact with swine is a known risk factor for HEV infection, the sources of HEV infections are probably numerous, including travelling abroad and possibly also other reservoirs of HEV than pigs.     

Seroepidemiology and molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus infection in swine and occupationally exposed workers in Punjab,India

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has two discrete epidemiological patterns: waterborne epidemics in developing countries only, caused by HEV genotype I, and sporadic zoonotic outbreaks in developing and developed countries caused by genotypes III and IV. This study was designed to investigate seroprevalence, molecular detection and the characterization of HEV by nested RT‐PCR in swine as well as the occupational risk to exposed human population in Punjab state of north‐western India. The occupational risk‐exposed group comprised of swine farmers (organized – mixed feed feeders and unorganized – swill feeders), slaughterhouse workers, sewage workers and veterinary internes. During the study period, blood and faecal samples were collected from 320 swine and 360 humans with both high and low occupational exposure risks. The overall seroprevalence of swine HEV was 65.00%, with a significantly higher seropositivity in growing pigs (2–8 months of age). The prevalence of HEV RNA in swine faecal samples by nRT‐PCR was 8.75% with a significantly higher detection in swill‐fed pigs. With humans in the high occupational exposure risk population, significantly higher anti‐HEV IgG seropositivity was observed (60.48%) as compared to control population (10.71%). Strong evidence of association between human anti‐HEV IgG seropositivity and certain occupational exposure risk groups was observed (p < 0.05). This indicates that unorganized swine farmers, slaughterhouse workers and sewage workers have higher odds of HEV infection in this study region. Percentage of nucleotide similarity between swine and human HEV isolates was less than that found in countries with zoonotic HEV outbreaks. Molecular characterization revealed the circulation of G IV and G I genotypes among swine and human population in Punjab state, respectively.     

Seroprevalence and Factors Associated with Coxiella burnetii Infection in Small Ruminants in Baringo County,Kenya

To improve estimates of C. burnetii epidemiology in Kenya, a survey was undertaken in small ruminants in Baringo County, where acute cases of Q fever in humans had been reported in 2014. From 140 household herds selected, 508 (60.5%) goats and 332 (39.5%) sheep were included and an indirect ELISA assay for C. burnetii IgG antibodies performed. In addition, epidemiological information at both herd and animal level was collected. Generalized mixed‐effects multivariable logistic model using herd as the random effect was used to determine variables correlated to the outcome. Overall seroprevalence was 20.5% (95% CI: 17.8%, 23.3%). Goats had 26.0% (95% CI: 22.2%, 30.0%) compared to sheep 12.2% (95% CI: 8.7%, 16.0%). Nomadic pastoralism, goats and older animals (>1 year) were associated with greater risk of C. burnetii seropositivity (P = ≤0.05). Heterogeneity in C. burnetii seropositivity was observed across the sublocations (P = 0.028). Evidence of C. burnetii exposure in small ruminants revealed poses a potential risk of exposure to the people living in close proximity to the animals. We recommended integrated animal–human surveillance and socio‐economic studies for C. burnetii, to aid our understanding of the risk of transmission between the animals and humans, and in the design of prevention and control strategies for the disease in the region.     

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E Virus in Humans and Geographically Matched Food Animals in Egypt

The aim of current study was to investigate the epidemiology of Hepatitis E virus (HEV) in humans and geographically matched food animals as a novel zoonotic assessment in Egypt. Blood samples were collected from patients who had a history of jaundice and attended to fever and general hospitals. Animal blood samples were collected from cows, buffaloes, sheep and goats convenient to HEV seropositive humans. Enzyme Immuno Assay (EIA) protocol was used to determine IgG anti‐HEV. Sex and pregnancy were investigated as potential risk factors for HEV infection. Of 134 examined humans, 51 (38.1%) were positive for IgG anti‐HEV. The males showed 26.8% seropositivity while the recorded female seropositivity was 50.8%, with a significant difference at P = 0.005, Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.35 at 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.17–0.73. There was a significant difference at P = 0.02 between seropositivity in pregnant (25%) and non‐pregnant women (59.6%); OR was 0.23 (95% CI: 0.06–0.81). Anorexia was the most common symptom whereas paraesthesia and back pain were the least within icteric seropositive HEV humans. Hepatitis E virus seropositivity was recorded in 21.6%, 14%, 4.4% and 9.4% from examined cows, buffaloes, sheep and goats, respectively. The infected food animals were convenient to positive HEV humans who may declare the epidemiological picture of potential zoonotic HEV.     

Hepatitis E virus infection in swine workers: A meta‐analysis

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infects both humans and animals. Swine has been confirmed to be the principal natural reservoir, which raises a concern that HEV infection would be substantially increasing among swine workers. The present study calculated the pooled prevalence of IgG antibodies against HEV among swine workers and the general population in previous cross‐sectional studies. We conducted a meta‐analysis comparing the prevalence of HEV infection between swine workers and the general population, including local residents, blood donors and non‐swine workers. Through searches in three databases (PubMed and OVID in English, and CNKI in Chinese) and after study selection, a total of 32 studies from 16 countries (from 1999 through 2018) were included in the meta‐analysis. A random‐effect model was employed in the study; an I ² statistic assessed heterogeneity, and the Egger's test detected publication bias. The comparative prevalence of anti‐HEV IgG was pooled from the studies. Compared to the general population, the prevalence ratio (PR) for swine workers was estimated to be 1.52 (95% CI 1.38–1.76) with the I ² being 71%. No publication bias was detected (p = 0.40). A subgroup analysis further indicated increased prevalence of anti‐HEV IgG in the swine workers in Asia (PR = 1.49, 95% CI: 1.35–1.64), in Europe (PR = 1.93, 95% CI: 1.49–2.50) and in all five swine‐related occupations, including swine farmers, butchers, meat processors, pork retailers and veterinarians (PR ranged between 1.19 and 1.75). In summary, swine workers have a relatively higher prevalence of past HEV infection, and this finding is true across swine‐related occupations, which confirms zoonotic transmission between swine and swine workers.     

Serological evidence of hepatitis E virus infection in pigs and jaundice among pig handlers in Bangladesh

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the most common cause of viral hepatitis in humans. Pigs may act as a reservoir of HEV, and pig handlers were frequently identified with a higher prevalence of antibodies to HEV. The objectives of this study were to identify evidence of HEV infection in pigs and compare the history of jaundice between pig handlers and people not exposed to pigs and pork. Blood and faecal samples were collected from 100 pigs derived from three slaughterhouses in the Gazipur district of Bangladesh from January to June, 2011. We also interviewed 200 pig handlers and 250 non‐exposed people who did not eat pork or handled pigs in the past 2 years. We tested the pig sera for HEV‐specific antibodies using a competitive ELISA and pig faecal samples for HEV RNA using real‐time RT‐PCR. Of 100 pig sera, 82% (n = 82) had detectable antibody against HEV. Of the 200 pig handlers, 28% (56/200) demonstrated jaundice within the past 2 years, whereas only 17% (43/250) of controls had a history of jaundice (p < .05). Compared to non‐exposed people, those who slaughtered pigs (31% versus 15%, p < .001), reared pigs (37% versus 20%, p < .001), butchered pigs (35% versus 19%, p < .001) or involved in pork transportation (28% versus 13%, p < .001) were more likely to be affected with jaundice in the preceding 2 years. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, exposure to pigs (odds ratio [OR]: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.2–3.9) and age (OR: 0.97, 95% CI: 0.95–0.99) was significantly associated with jaundice in the past 2 years. Pigs in Bangladesh demonstrated evidence of HEV infection, and a history of jaundice was significantly more frequent in pig handlers. Identifying and genotyping HEV in pigs and pig handlers may provide further evidence of the pig's role in zoonotic HEV transmission in Bangladesh.     

Evidence of increased Hepatitis E virus exposure in Lao villagers with contact to ruminants

Although pigs are the main reservoir, ruminants have also been shown to be susceptible to hepatitis E virus (HEV). We investigated zoonotic transmission of HEV in rural settings of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) where humans are in close contacts with ruminants and where pigs are rare. Villagers with (n = 171, risk group) and without (n = 155, control group) cattle were recruited in seven villages in Vientiane Capital. Owners of pigs were excluded. Blood, as well as information on socio‐demographics, animal contact, dietary habits and awareness of zoonoses were collected to assess risk factors. Blood and rectal swabs were collected from cattle (n = 173) and other ruminants (27 goat, 5 buffaloes) to measure anti‐HEV antibody and virus prevalence. A similar anti‐HEV antibody seroprevalence was found in cattle (6.8%) and other ruminants (8%). HEV RNA was detected in none of the animal rectal swabs and human sera. Anti‐HEV IgG seroprevalence was higher in cattle farmers than in the control group (59.1% vs. 43.9%, p = 0.008) and increased significantly with age. Other risk factors included male gender, close contact with cattle and consumption of undercooked meat. We find that HEV is highly endemic in rural Laos and provide first evidence that HEV circulates in free‐roaming ruminants with open access to village water sources. Despite some awareness about hygiene, villagers are likely constantly exposed to zoonotic diseases by dietary and lifestyle habits. Cattle farmers had a higher risk of HEV infection than other villagers. Our study highlights the need to raise the awareness of the rural population about water‐ and food‐borne pathogens, and about the role of cattle as a possible source of infection. The knowledge gained on local risk factors and husbandry conditions should guide future awareness raising campaigns and promote appropriate hygienic measures including handwashing and the consumption of safe food and water.     

Serological Survey of Veterinarians to Assess the Zoonotic Potential of Three Emerging Swine Diseases in Mexico

We conducted an immunological assay of blood samples taken from 85 swine‐specialist veterinarians attending the Congress of the Mexican Association of Swine Specialist Veterinarians in Mexico in 2011. Serum samples were assayed for Porcine rubulavirus (PorPV), Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and Leptospira spp. antibodies. Using a hemagglutination inhibition test, we registered 2.3% and 27% seropositivity for PorPV and EMCV, respectively. Using viral neutralization tests, we registered 5.8% and 47% seropositivity for PorPV and EMCV, respectively. For Leptospira spp., we registered a seropositivity of 38.8%. The variables (sex, age, years of exposure, number of visited farms, biosecurity level and region) showed no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the seropositivity for EMCV, PorPV and Leptospira spp. except for number of visited farms on HI seropositivity for EMCV (P < 0.05; odds ratio: 1.38). The data obtained provide information on the epidemiology of emerging diseases with zoonotic potential in occupational risk groups.     

Rural habitat as risk factor for hepatitis E virus seroconversion in HIV‐infected patients: A prospective longitudinal study

Our objective was to determine the incidence and clinical manifestations of acute hepatitis E virus (HEV) in HIV‐infected patients. A prospective longitudinal study including HIV‐infected HEV‐seronegative patients was conducted; HEV seroconversion (to IgG and/or IgM) was the main outcome variable. All patients were tested for HEV antibodies every 3–6 months. For patients who developed HEV seroconversion, a data collection protocol was followed to identify associated clinical manifestations and analytical alterations. A total of 627 patients (89.9%) were followed during a median of 11.96 months (IQR: 8.52–14.52 months) and formed the study population. Forty‐one patients developed detectable anti‐HEV antibodies (7.2 cases per 100 patients/year). Our study found a high incidence of HEV in HIV‐infected patients in southern Spain strongly associated with a rural habitat.     

Hepatitis E virus in wild rabbits and European brown hares in Germany

Recently, a change of hepatitis E from being a typical travel‐associated disease to an autochthonous zoonosis in Germany was observed. An increasing number of autochthonous infections with the hepatitis E Virus (HEV) have been recognized in developed countries. Venison from wild boar is already known to be a potential source of infection, if not prepared properly by the consumer. In Germany, certain wild animals are known to be a reservoir for HEV. However, current information is missing about European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Thus, a total of 833 hunting‐harvested animals (European brown hares n = 669; wild rabbits n = 164) were tested for the occurrence of HEV RNA and HEV antibodies. For this, liver and blood specimens were taken after hunts in six German federal states. HEV antibodies were found by ELISA in 2.2% (624/14) of European brown hares, but no HEV RNA was detectable by nested real‐time RT‐PCR. In contrast, a seroprevalence of 37.3% (126/47) was observed for wild rabbits, and 17.1% (164/28) of the samples were HEV RNA positive. Genomic analysis revealed that these partial sequences clustered within the rabbit clade of HEV‐3 genotype. In addition, one rabbit sequence segregated into subtype 3g of HEV‐3. Highest seroprevalences for hares and rabbits were detected in the federal states of Bavaria and of Schleswig‐Holstein, respectively. Comparing urban, rural and insular areas, the highest seroprevalence was shown for wild rabbits in rural areas and for European brown hares on the northern island Fehmarn. This study provides evidence that European brown hares and wild rabbits from Germany can be infected with HEV. The different prevalences indicate that wild rabbits are a potential reservoir for HEV in Germany, whereas European brown hares seem to be only of minor importance for the epidemiology of HEV.     

Risk factors for foot and mouth disease seroprevalence in indigenous cattle in Southern Ethiopia: the effect of production system

A serological survey to investigate risk factors for Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) occurrence was conducted between October 2007 and March 2008 in Southern Ethiopia. Antibodies against non-structural protein of FMD virus (using 3abc ELISA) were measured as indicator of exposure to the virus. The seroprevalence of FMD was 9.5% (95%CI = 7.7 – 11.3, n = 1020) and 48.1% (95% CI = 36.8 – 59.4%, n = 79), respectively at animal and herd levels. Within herd seropositivity was ranged from 6.7 to 46.7% with 18.6% (95%CI = 14.6 – 22.5%) risk of being seropositive for an animal in positive herds. The most important herd level risk factors identified were pastoral system (OR = 16.3, 95% CI = 2.0 -133.7) compared to sedentary, low altitude (OR = 7.5, 95% CI 1.4 -40.7) compared to high altitude, keeping cattle with small ruminants (OR = 5.1, 95% CI 1.0 -25.2) when compared to one species or alone. Seroprevalence was significantly higher (P <0.05) in South Omo than Sidama and Gamo Gofa areas. The odds of seropositivity were 2.8 and 2.3 times higher in the adult (>4 years) and maturing animals (3–4 years) compared to young age category (<3 years). Both multivariable logistic and negative binomial regressions depicted that production system was the major risk factor for FMD seropositivity. Consequently, higher prevalence of FMD in pastoral system where animals are an integral part of life has substantial livelihood and economic implications, which signifies the need for devising control measures.     

Seroepidemiology and genotyping of hepatitis E virus in Singapore reveal rise in number of cases and similarity of human strains to those detected in pig livers

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes 20 million infections worldwide yearly, of which only about 3.3 million are symptomatic. In developed Asian countries, HEV strains detected in human sera and in food sources were genetically similar, suggesting that indigenous HEV infections may be largely food‐borne. To assess the burden of hepatitis E in Singapore, we performed a seroepidemiologic study of the infection. Additionally, we carried out HEV genotyping on archived, residual HEV IgM‐positive serum samples collected between 2014 and 2016 (n = 449), and on pig liver samples (n = 36) purchased from wet markets and supermarkets. Our study shows a rise in hepatitis E incidence (IgM) from 1.7 to 4.1 cases per 100,000 resident population from 2012 to 2016 and an increase in hepatitis E IgG positivity rate among residents from 14% in 2007 to 35% in 2016. Other findings also suggest the epidemiology of hepatitis E in Singapore has shifted, from it being mainly a disease imported from the Indian subcontinent, to one that is now increasingly prevalent in our resident population. Genotypes obtained from 143 human samples identified the majority to be genotype 3 (n = 121), 21 to be genotype 1 and one to be genotype 4. Further phylogenetic analyses suggest genotype 3a to be the cause of indigenous infections in residents, which showed genetic similarity to the genotype 3a strains detected in pig livers. This link between the strains in the majority of human samples and those in pig livers consumed by the public suggests a possible food‐borne route of HEV infection in Singapore.     

Seroprevalence of Bartonella species,Coxiella burnetii and Toxoplasma gondii among patients with hematological malignancies: A pilot study in Romania

Patients receiving immunosuppressive cancer treatments in settings where there is a high degree of human–animal interaction may be at increased risk for opportunistic zoonotic infections or reactivation of latent infections. We sought to determine the seroprevalence of selected zoonotic pathogens among patients diagnosed with haematologic malignancies and undergoing chemotherapeutic treatments in Romania, where much of the general population lives and/or works in contact with livestock. A convenience sample of 51 patients with haematologic cancer undergoing chemotherapy at a referral clinic in Cluj‐Napoca, Romania, was surveyed regarding animal exposures. Blood samples were obtained and tested for evidence of infection with Bartonella species, Coxiella burnetii and Toxoplasma gondii, which are important opportunistic zoonotic agents in immunocompromised individuals. 58.8% of participants reported living or working on a farm, and living or working on a farm was associated with contact with livestock and other animals. 37.5% of participants were IgG seroreactive against one or more of five Bartonella antigens, and seroreactivity was statistically associated with living on farms. Farm dwellers were 3.6 times more likely to test IgG seroreactive to Bartonella antibodies than non‐farm dwellers. 47.1% of the participants tested T. gondii IgG positive and 13.7% tested C. burnetii IgG positive, indicating past or latent infection. C. burnetii IgM antibodies were detected in four participants (7.8%), indicating possible recent infection. These results indicate that a large proportion of patients with haematologic cancer in Romania may be at risk for zoonotic infections or for reactivation of latent zoonotic infections, particularly with respect to Bartonella species. Special attention should be paid to cancer patients' exposure to livestock and companion animals in areas where much of the population lives in rural settings.     

A Cross‐Sectional Study of Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Healthy People Directly Exposed and Unexposed to Pigs in a Rural Community in Northern Thailand

A cross‐sectional study of the association between occupational pig exposure and hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in adult pig farmers and the general population who were not directly exposed to pigs was conducted in Nan Province, Thailand, from November 2010 to April 2011. All participants were interviewed to provide information on their job history, eating habits and other potential confounders. The prevalence of anti‐HEV immunoglobulin G antibodies (IgG) among 513 subjects was 23.0%. Hand washing with water and soap was associated with a lower seroprevalence of HEV infection, whereas living in an area with frequent flooding (OR 1.64, 95% CI: 1.00–2.68) and consuming internal pig organs more than twice per week (OR 3.23, 95%CI: 1.15–9.01) were both associated with a higher seroprevalence of anti‐HEV IgG. There was no association between HEV seroprevalence and frequent, direct occupational pig contact.     

First detection of Hepatitis E virus (Orthohepevirus C) in wild brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) from Great Britain

In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in the number of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in people annually since 2010. Most of these are thought to be indigenously acquired Orthohepevirus A genotype 3 (HEV G3), which has been linked to pork production and consumption. However, the dominant subgroup circulating in British pigs differs from that which is found in people; therefore, an alternative, potentially zoonotic, source is suspected as a possible cause of these infections. Rodents, brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) in particular, have been shown to carry HEV, both the swine HEV G3 genotype and Orthohepevirus C, genotype C1 (rat HEV). To investigate the prevalence of HEV in British rodents, liver tissue was taken from 307 rodents collected from pig farms (n = 12) and other locations (n = 10). The RNA from these samples was extracted and tested using a pan‐HEV nested RT‐PCR. Limited histopathology was also performed. In this study, 8/61 (13%, 95% CI, 5–21) of brown rat livers were positive for HEV RNA. Sequencing of amplicons demonstrated all infections to be rat HEV with 87%–92% nucleotide identity to other rat HEV sequences circulating within Europe and China (224 nt ORF‐1). Lesions and necrosis were observed histologically in 2/3 samples examined. No rat HEV RNA was detected in any other species, and no HEV G3 RNA was detected in any rodent in this study. This is the first reported detection of rat HEV in Great Britain. A human case of rat HEV infection has recently been reported in Asia, suggesting that rat HEV could pose a risk to public health.     

Blood and Colostrum/Milk Serum γ‐Glutamyltransferase Activity as a Predictor of Passive Transfer Status in Lambs

The importance of blood and colostrum/milk serum γ‐glutamyl transferase (γ‐GT) enzyme activity was evaluated to assess passive transfer status in healthy lambs. Thirty Akkaraman sheep (3–6 years old) were used which had normal pregnancy period and the same conditions, and the age of the lambs ranged between 0 and 15 days. Blood and colostrum/milk samples were collected from sheep and lambs after birth, before suckling (0) and after on 1st, 3rd, 7th and 15th days. Serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration was determined by the use of Single Radial Immunodiffusion method. Serum γ‐GT activity was measured, using a commercially available kit in blood and colostrum/milk samples. Correlations were carried out between immunoglobulin and γ‐GT levels. Regression models (simple and multiple) were calculated with significant data. Linear correlation was determined between colostrum/milk γ‐GT activity and IgG concentrations and between serum γ‐GT activity and IgG concentrations in lambs on the 0 day. (r: 0.607, P: 0.001), 1st (r: 0.768, P: 0.001) and the 3rd (r: 0.603, P: 0.001) days and on the 1st (r: 0.637, P: 0.001) and 3rd (r: 0.478, P: 0.012) days in the experiment, respectively. Multivariate regression models were developed to estimate sample IgG concentration. Serum and colostrum/milk IgG concentration could be predicted using the formula: lamb serum IgG = 825 + 0.688 (lamb γ‐GT) + 52 (days); colostrum/milk IgG = 832 + 0.505 (colostrum/milk γ‐GT) ? 167 (days). The regression models were moderately accurate in predicting serum IgG concentration (R² = 0.51) and colostrum/milk IgG concentration (R² = 0.55). Test sensitivity and positive predictive values for serum γ‐GT enzyme activity were found to be 96 and 100% and for colostrum/milk γ‐GT enzyme activity were found to be 100 and 68% to prediction IgG concentration. Serum and colostrum/milk γ‐GT activity can be used to assess passive transfer status of lambs. Along with this, regression models used to calculate serum and colostrum/milk γ‐GT activities found to be useful to estimate sample IgG concentration. The use of serum and colostrum/milk γ‐GT enzyme activity was found useful especially after birth on the 0, 1st and 3rd days.     

Hepatitis E virus in Cuba: A cross-sectional serological and virological study in pigs and people occupationally exposed to pigs

Surveillance of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in risk groups is an important strategy to monitor its circulation pattern and to timely detect changes thereof. The aims of this cross-sectional study were to estimate the prevalence of HEV infections in pigs and humans from different regions of the country, to identify risk factors for increasing anti-HEV IgG prevalence and to characterize HEV strains. The presence of anti-HEV antibodies was assessed by commercial ELISA in serum samples from the general population, farm and slaughterhouse employees, as well as pigs sampled in the three regions of Cuba from February to September 2016. Overall, individuals with occupational exposure to swine or swine products (70/248, 28.2%) were 4 times more likely to be seropositive compared to the general population (25/285, 8.7%; OR: 4.18; p < .001). Within the risk group, risk factors included age, number of years working in a professional activity with direct exposure to swine, geographic region and distance between residence and closest professional swine setting, while wearing gloves had a protective effect. Prevalence of total anti-HEV antibodies in swine was 88.2% (165/187) and HEV RNA was detected by real-time RT-PCR in 9.2% (16/173) swine stools. All HEV strains sequenced clustered within genotype 3. Some strains clearly belonged to subtype 3a, while another group of strains was related with subtypes 3b and 3 k but partial HEV sequences did not allow unequivocal subtype assignment. These findings suggest that the high HEV exposure in Cuban individuals with swine-related occupations could be due to enzootic HEV in certain regions, direct contact with infectious animals or their products as well as environmental contamination.     

A systematic review and meta‐analysis of predictors of human hepatitis E virus exposure in non‐endemic countries

The reported incidence of clinical hepatitis E cases is rising in some non‐endemic countries, with concurrent concerns regarding potential hepatitis E virus (HEV) contamination of the blood supply. Therefore, the characterization of major potential sources of human HEV exposure is important to inform risk assessment and public health policy. A systematic review was conducted, including a comprehensive search in six electronic bibliographic databases, verified by hand‐searching reference lists of HEV reviews, and a grey literature search, of the broad research question ‘what is the evidence of the association between predictors of human HEV exposure, and HEV IgG seropositivity, in non‐endemic countries?’ Using forms designed a priori, captured studies were appraised at first‐level screening, second‐level characterization, and third‐level data extraction and risk of bias assessment. Meta‐analysis yielded summary estimates of association between potential predictors and odds of HEV seropositivity. Meta‐analysis and meta‐regression of the odds of HEV seroprevalence in specific groups characterized potential sources of HEV exposure. From 4,163 captured citations, 245 relevant studies underwent data extraction, investigating HEV seroprevalence or predictors in both healthy subjects and targeted patient groups. Across these groups, increasing age was a predictor of HEV IgG seropositivity. Both human immunodeficiency virus patients and haemodialysis patients had significantly increased odds of HEV seropositivity relative to the general population. Working with pigs, in forestry, or in hospitals, was significantly associated with increased odds of HEV seropositivity, as were consumption of meat, pork or game meat, or hunting. Chronological time was not associated with HEV seropositivity within our data sets. Further study of the distribution of potential dietary or behavioural predictors between high and lower prevalence areas within non‐endemic countries could improve our understanding of the relative importance of specific HEV transmission pathways.     

Prevalence of IgG Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in Veterinary and Undergraduate Students at Virginia Tech,Blacksburg, Virginia

Toxoplasma gondii is a globally distributed parasitic protozoan that infects humans and other warm‐blooded vertebrates. Felids are the only definitive host for T. gondii, and they excrete oocysts in their faeces. The national prevalence in humans is declining in the United States. This zoonotic organism is of particular interest due to its importance in pregnant women, in individuals with altered immune systems, and in reactivated ocular infections. Exposure to the parasite in humans is usually associated with consumption of raw or undercooked meat or by accidental ingestion of oocysts. It was hypothesized that veterinary students would have a greater chance at exposure to the parasite than an average population of undergraduate students due to increased contact with cats who are infected. A commercially available ELISA was used to examine serum samples from 336 students (252 veterinary students and 84 undergraduate students) at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and the Virginia‐Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine for serum IgG antibodies to T. gondii antigen. The prevalence of T. gondii in these subjects was 5.6% in veterinary school students (n = 252) and 2.4% in undergraduates (n = 84). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in veterinary versus undergraduate students. The overall prevalence of 4.8% in all students in this study reflects the continuing decline of antibodies to T. gondii in humans in the United States.