Multilocus Sequence Types of Environmental Campylobacter jejuni Isolates and their Similarities to those of Human,Poultry and Bovine C. jejuni Isolates

In this study, we investigated the multilocus sequence type (MLST) diversity and population genetics of Campylobacter jejuni isolates collected from the natural waters (n = 57), wild birds (n = 37) and zoo animals (n = 19) in southern Finland, the Helsinki area and the Helsinki Zoo, respectively. On average, we found C. jejuni in 20%, 10.4% or 11.5% of the samples collected from natural waters, wild birds and zoo animals, respectively. High ST diversity was detected in all three sources and 41.2% of the STs were novel, but the multi‐host adapted ST‐45 was the most common ST detected. The MLST data, supplemented with C. jejuni isolates from domestically acquired human infections (n = 454), poultry (n = 208) and bovines (n = 120), were utilized in a population structure study. The results indicate four groups of strains with varying ecological associations, demonstrating presence of genetically distinct lineages within each of the studied sources. We discovered that the greatest ST overlap occurs between human isolates and isolates from natural waters and poultry, which suggests that the latter two are the most important sources of C. jejuni among domestically acquired infections in Finland.     

Characterization of the Campylobacter jejuni Population in the Barnacle Geese Reservoir

Campylobacter spp. are the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide and have been isolated from a wide number of different hosts and environmental sources. Waterfowl is considered a natural reservoir for this zoonotic bacterium and may act as a potential infection source for human campylobacteriosis. In this study, faecal samples from 924 barnacle geese were tested for the presence of C. jejuni and C. coli. The resulting C. jejuni and C. coli populations were characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST), structure analysis by BAPS and phylogenetic analysis based on full genome sequences. The prevalences of C. jejuni in barnacle geese faeces were 11.5% and 23.1% in 2011 and 2012, respectively, and only 0.2% of the samples were positive for C. coli in both years. Furthermore, a possible adaption of the clonal complexes (CCs) ST‐702 and ST‐1034 to the barnacle geese reservoir was found, as these two CCs represented the majority of the typed isolates and were repeatedly isolated from different flocks at several time‐points. Further core genome phylogenetic analysis using ClonalFrame revealed a formation of a distinct monophyletic lineage by these two CCs, suggesting a certain degree of clonality of the C. jejuni population adapted to barnacle geese. Therefore, although STs also commonly found in humans patients (e.g. ST‐45) were among the barnacle geese C. jejuni isolates, this reservoir is probably an infrequent source for human campylobacteriosis.     

Prevalence of Type VI Secretion System in Spanish Campylobacter jejuni Isolates

Infections from Campylobacter jejuni pose a serious public health problem and are now considered the leading cause of foodborne bacterial gastroenteritis throughout the world. Sequencing of C. jejuni genomes has previously allowed a number of loci to be identified, which encode virulence factors that aid survival and pathogenicity. Recently, a Type VI secretion system (T6SS) consisting of 13 conserved genes was described in C. jejuni strains and recognised to promote pathogenicity and adaptation to the environment. In this study, we determined the presence of this T6SS in 63 Spanish C. jejuni isolates from the food chain and urban effluents using whole‐genome sequencing. Our findings demonstrated that nine (14%) strains harboured the 13 ORFs found in prototype strain C. jejuni 108. Further studies will be necessary to determine the prevalence and importance of T6SS‐positive C. jejuni strains.     

Seroprevalence in Chickens against Campylobacter jejuni Flagellar Capping Protein (FliD) in Selected Areas of the United States

Campylobacter jejuni is a causative pathogen of human acute bacterial gastroenteritis. Infected poultry products are regarded as a major source for human C. jejuni infection. The flagellar capping protein (FliD) is highly conserved among C. jejuni strains/isolates and is antigenic as analysed by immunoblot. In this study, we used the FliD protein as a probe to survey the prevalence of C. jejuni antibodies in chickens from two areas in the United States. A total of 394 samples were tested. Sera from layer breeders of 44–52 weeks of age tested 100% positive, while 4‐ to 6‐week broilers from 22 premises showed 7–100% positivity. These results demonstrate that anti‐FliD antibodies were prevalent in the poultry population in the areas of serum samples collected.     

Investigations of the Distribution and Persistence of Salmonella and Ciprofloxacin‐Resistant Escherichia coli in Turkey Hatcheries in the UK

This study aimed at gaining information on the presence of Salmonella in UK turkey hatcheries and possible epidemiological links between breeding farms, hatcheries and finishing farms. The presence of ciprofloxacin‐resistant E. coli in hatchery samples, as well as in faecal samples from farms, and trends in occurrence of resistance were also investigated. Over a 2 year‐period, four British turkey hatcheries were visited and intensively sampled for the presence of Salmonella and ciprofloxacin‐resistant E. coli. In two hatcheries, a link could be demonstrated between the presence of certain Salmonella serovars in the hatcheries and on breeding and finishing farms. Within the hatcheries, serovars linked to breeding farms were found more frequently in the poult processing and dispatch areas, whereas serovars identified as ‘resident hatchery contaminants’ were predominantly found inside the hatcher cabinets. Ciprofloxacin‐resistant isolates of S. Senftenberg were identified in one hatchery, which coincided with enrofloxacin treatment of some of the breeding flocks. Ciprofloxacin‐resistant E. coli was found in two hatcheries, and the majority of these isolates showed multidrug resistance.     

Rickettsial Infection in Animals,Humans and Ticks in Paulicéia,Brazil

A previous study in Paulicéia Municipality, south‐eastern Brazil, reported 9.7% of the Amblyomma triste ticks to be infected by Rickettsia parkeri, a bacterial pathogen that causes spotted fever in humans. These A. triste ticks were shown to be associated with marsh areas, where the marsh deer Blastocerus dichotomus is a primary host for this tick species. During 2008–2009, blood serum samples were collected from 140 horses, 41 dogs, 5 opossums (Didelphis albiventris) and 26 humans in farms from Pauliceia Municipality. Ticks were collected from these animals, from vegetation and from additional wildlife in these farms. Overall, 25% (35/140) of the horses, 7.3% (3/41) of the dogs, 3.8% (1/26) of the humans and 100% (5/5) of the opossums were seroreactive (titre ≥64) to spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia spp. Multivariate statistical analysis indicated that horses that were allowed to forage in the marsh were 4.8 times more likely to be seroreactive to spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia spp than horses that did not forage in the marsh. In addition, horses that had been living in the farm for more than 8.5 years were 2.8 times more likely to be seroreactive to SFG Rickettsia spp than horses that were living for ≤8.5 years. Ticks collected from domestic animals or from vegetation included Amblyomma cajennense, Amblyomma coelebs, Amblyomma dubitatum, Dermacentor nitens and Rhipicephalus microplus. By PCR analyses, only one pool of A. coelebs ticks from the vegetation was shown to be infected by rickettsiae, for which DNA sequencing revealed to be Rickettsia amblyommii. Ticks (not tested by PCR) collected from wildlife encompassed A. cajennense and Amblyomma rotundatum on lizards (Tupinambis sp), and A. cajennense and A. triste on the bird Laterallus viridis. Our results indicate that the marsh area of Paulicéia offers risks of infection by SFG rickettsiae.     

Distribution and Genotypic Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni Isolated from Poultry in Split and Dalmatia County,Croatia

Consumption of poultry contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni has been recognized worldwide as the leading cause of campylobacteriosis. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the prevalence and genotype diversity of Campylobacter jejuni in poultry meat intended for consumption in Split and Dalmatia County, which is the second biggest County in Croatia. Furthermore, we also wanted to discover possibly stable clones of C. jejuni appearing in different samples and periods of time, which would indicate their ability to persist in or adapt to poultry. In the period from March 2008 until June 2010, 834 samples of poultry from various sources were examined using a surface swab technique. Isolation of C. jejuni was performed by Preston broth and Karmali agar. Identification of the isolates was carried out using biochemical tests. C. jejuni was found in 84 of 574 chicken samples (14.6%) and in nine of 260 samples of turkey (3.5%). Pulse‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was used to analyse 61 obtained isolates using SmaI and KpnI. Of 22 different macrorestriction profiles (MRP) that were found, five were detected in poultry from both different locations and periods of time. Samples from 11 locations were found to be contaminated with more than two different genotypes of C. jejuni. Interestingly, the same MRP were found both in poultry declared to be of domestic origin and in the poultry imported from abroad. The prevalence of C. jejuni in poultry samples was in accordance with previously reported results. Genotypic analysis indicated that the population of C. jejuni in Split and Dalmatia County was diverse and that multiple strains of C. jejuni could be found in the same poultry samples. Furthermore, the same genotypes were identified from the samples obtained from different locations and periods of time, which could support the theory of a global existence of certain MRP that are able to persist in or adapt to poultry.     

空肠弯曲菌peb1A基因的克隆表达及免疫原性分析

根据空肠弯曲菌基因序列设计引物,以菌株ATCC 29428为模板扩增出peb1A基因片段,定向克隆至pMD18-T载体中,并对克隆片段测序,比较所测序列与不同来源弯曲菌的同源性;用软件改造并合成peb1A基因78 bp～780 bp区间片段,PCR扩增后,构建出表达载体pET-28a(+)-peb 1Ag,转化至E.c...     

Isolation of a Campylobacter lanienae‐like Bacterium from Laboratory Chinchillas (Chinchilla laniger)

Routine necropsies of 27 asymptomatic juvenile chinchillas revealed a high prevalence of gastric ulcers with microscopic lymphoplasmacytic gastroenteritis and typhlocolitis. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis using Campylobacter genus‐specific partial 16S rRNA primers revealed the presence of Campylobacter spp. DNA in the faeces of 12 of 27 animals (44.4%). Species‐specific partial 16S rRNA PCR and sequencing confirmed that these animals were colonized with Campylobacter lanienae, a gram‐negative, microaerophilic bacterium that was first identified on routine faecal screening of slaughterhouse employees and subsequently isolated from faeces of livestock. Campylobacter lanienae was isolated from the faeces of six PCR‐positive animals and identified with species‐specific PCR and full 16S rRNA sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these isolates clustered with C. lanienae strain NCTC 13004. PCR analysis of DNA extracted from gastrointestinal tissues revealed the presence of C. lanienae DNA in the caecum and colon of these chinchillas. Gastrointestinal lesions were scored and compared between C. lanienae‐positive and C. lanienae‐negative animals. There was no correlation between colonization status and lesion severity in the stomach, liver, duodenum, or colon. Possible routes of C. lanienae infection in chinchillas could include waterborne transmission and faecal–oral transmission from wild mice and rats or livestock. Based on these findings, the authors conclude that C. lanienae colonizes the lower bowel of chinchillas in the absence of clinical disease. This is the first report of C. lanienae in any rodent species. Campylobacter lanienae isolates from different mammalian species demonstrate heterogeneity by 16S rRNA sequence comparison. Analysis using rpoB suggests that isolates and clones currently identified as C. lanienae may represent multiple species or subspecies.     

Brucella abortus is Prevalent in Both Humans and Animals in Bangladesh

To determine the role of different Brucella (B.) spp. in Bangladesh, 62 animal samples and 500 human sera were tested. Animal samples from cattle, goats and sheep (including milk, bull semen, vaginal swabs and placentas) were cultured for Brucella spp. Three test‐positive human sera and all animal samples were screened by Brucella genus‐specific real‐time PCR (RT‐PCR), and positive samples were then tested by IS711 RT‐PCR to detect B. abortus and B. melitensis DNA. Only B. abortus DNA was amplified from 13 human and six animal samples. This is the first report describing B. abortus as the aetiological agent of brucellosis in occupationally exposed humans in Bangladesh. Of note is failure to detect B. melitensis DNA, the species most often associated with human brucellosis worldwide. Further studies are required to explore the occurrence of Brucella melitensis in Bangladesh.     

Molecular and Statistical Analysis of Campylobacter spp. and Antimicrobial‐Resistant Campylobacter Carriage in Wildlife and Livestock from Ontario Farms

The objectives of this study were to (i) compare the carriage of Campylobacter and antimicrobial‐resistant Campylobacter among livestock and mammalian wildlife on Ontario farms, and (ii) investigate the potential sharing of Campylobacter subtypes between livestock and wildlife. Using data collected from a cross‐sectional study of 25 farms in 2010, we assessed associations, using mixed logistic regression models, between Campylobacter and antimicrobial‐resistant Campylobacter carriage and the following explanatory variables: animal species (beef, dairy, swine, raccoon, other), farm type (swine, beef, dairy), type of sample (livestock or wildlife) and Campylobacter species (jejuni, coli, other). Models included a random effect to account for clustering by farm where samples were collected. Samples were subtyped using a Campylobacter‐specific 40 gene comparative fingerprinting assay. A total of 92 livestock and 107 wildlife faecal samples were collected, and 72% and 27% tested positive for Campylobacter, respectively. Pooled faecal samples from livestock were significantly more likely to test positive for Campylobacter than wildlife samples. Relative to dairy cattle, pig samples were at significantly increased odds of testing positive for Campylobacter. The odds of isolating Campylobacter jejuni from beef cattle samples were significantly greater compared to dairy cattle and raccoon samples. Fifty unique subtypes of Campylobacter were identified, and only one subtype was found in both wildlife and livestock samples. Livestock Campylobacter isolates were significantly more likely to exhibit antimicrobial resistance (AMR) compared to wildlife Campylobacter isolates. Campylobacter jejuni was more likely to exhibit AMR when compared to C. coli. However, C. jejuni isolates were only resistant to tetracycline, and C.  coli isolates exhibited multidrug resistance patterns. Based on differences in prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and resistant Campylobacter between livestock and wildlife samples, and the lack of similarity in molecular subtypes and AMR patterns, we concluded that the sharing of Campylobacter species between livestock and mammalian wildlife was uncommon.     

Prevalence and Genetic Relatedness of Antimicrobial‐Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated From Animals,Foods and Humans in Iceland

The prevalence of resistant bacteria in food products in Iceland is unknown, and little is known of the prevalence in production animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and genetic relatedness of antimicrobial‐resistant Escherichia coli from healthy pigs and broiler chicken, pork, broiler meat, slaughterhouse personnel and outpatients in Iceland. A total of 419 E. coli isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using a microbroth dilution method (VetMIC), and resistant strains were compared using pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). All samples were screened for enrofloxacin‐resistant strains with selective agar plates. The resistance rates among E. coli isolates were moderate to high from caecal and meat samples of pigs (54.1% and 28%), broilers (33.6% and 52%) and slaughterhouse personnel (39.1%), whereas isolates from outpatients showed moderate resistance rates (23.1%). Of notice was resistance to quinolones (minimum inhibitory concentrations: nalidixic acid ≥ 32, ciprofloxacin ≥ 0.12 and enrofloxacin ≥ 0.5), particularly among broiler and broiler meat isolates (18.2% and 36%), as there is no known antimicrobial selection pressure in the broiler production in Iceland. The majority (78.6%) of the resistant E. coli isolates was genotypically different, based on PFGE fingerprint analyses and clustering was limited. However, the same resistance pattern and pulsotype were found among isolates from broiler meat and a slaughterhouse worker, indicating spread of antimicrobial‐resistant E. coli from animals to humans. Diverse resistance patterns and pulsotypes suggest the presence of a large population of resistant E. coli in production animals in Iceland. This study gives baseline information on the prevalence of antimicrobial‐resistant E. coli from production animals, and their food products in Iceland and the moderate to high resistance rates emphasize the need for continuing surveillance. Further studies on the origin of the resistant strains and the genetic relatedness of strains of different origin are needed.     

Diversity of Plasmids and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Multidrug‐Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Healthy Companion Animals

The presence and transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes from commensal bacteria in companion animals to more pathogenic bacteria may contribute to dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. The purpose of this study was to determine antimicrobial resistance gene content and the presence of genetic elements in antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli from healthy companion animals. In our previous study, from May to August, 2007, healthy companion animals (155 dogs and 121 cats) from three veterinary clinics in the Athens, GA, USA area were sampled and multidrug‐resistant E. coli (n = 36; MDR, resistance to ≥2 antimicrobial classes) were obtained. Of the 25 different plasmid replicon types tested by PCR, at least one plasmid replicon type was detected in 94% (34/36) of the MDR E. coli; four isolates contained as many as five different plasmid replicons. Nine replicon types (FIA, FIB, FII, I2, A/C, U, P, I1 and HI2) were identified with FIB, FII, I2 as the most common pattern. The presence of class I integrons (intI) was detected in 61% (22/36) of the isolates with eight isolates containing aminoglycoside‐ and/or trimethoprim‐resistance genes in the variable cassette region of intI. Microarray analysis of a subset of the MDR E. coli (n = 9) identified the presence of genes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides (aac, aad, aph and strA/B), β‐lactams (ampC, cmy, tem and vim), chloramphenicol (cat), sulfonamides (sulI and sulII), tetracycline [tet(A), tet(B), tet(C), tet(D) and regulator, tetR] and trimethoprim (dfrA). Antimicrobial resistance to eight antimicrobials (ampicillin, cefoxitin, ceftiofur, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, streptomycin, gentamicin, sulfisoxazole and trimethoprim‐sulfamethoxazole) and five plasmid replicons (FIA, FIB, FII, I1 and I2) were transferred via conjugation. The presence of antimicrobial resistance genes, intI and transferable plasmid replicons indicate that E. coli from companion animals may play an important role in the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance, particularly to human hosts during contact.     

The pathology of natural and experimentally induced Campylobacter jejuni abortion in sheep

We describe here the gross and microscopic lesions in 18 experimentally induced and 120 natural Campylobacter abortions. In natural Campylobacter abortions, gross lesions were reported infrequently; placentitis was recorded in 6% and hepatic lesions in 4% of our field cases. Placentitis was the microscopic lesion identified most consistently in natural abortions (93%) and was often observed in association with abundant bacterial colonies in chorionic villi (54%) and less often with placental vasculitis (13%). In natural abortions, suppurative fetal pneumonia (48%), necrosuppurative hepatitis (16%), and purulent meningitis (7%) were also observed. The better-preserved specimens from experimentally induced abortions were utilized to define placental changes more precisely. Placentitis was identified in all 18 experimentally induced abortions and was observed most consistently in the chorionic villus stroma (100%), often accompanied by suppurative surface exudate (89%). An inflammatory infiltrate was less commonly identified in the cotyledonary hilus (39%) and intercotyledonary placenta (22%). Bacteria were visualized in H&E-stained sections in 89% of placentas from experimentally infected ewes, primarily as well-demarcated bacterial colonies within subtrophoblastic, sinusoidal capillaries (89%), in the cotyledonary villus stroma (89%), and within the cytoplasm of trophoblasts (22%). Transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry confirmed that the vast majority of the well-demarcated bacterial colonies characteristic of Campylobacter abortion were within subtrophoblastic sinusoidal capillaries. The most characteristic microscopic lesions identified in cases of Campylobacter abortion in sheep were placentitis with placental bacterial colonies, placental vasculitis, and fetal pneumonia.     

Meta‐analysis of the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter in food‐producing animals worldwide

The objective of this meta‐analysis was to summarize available information on the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter (TC) in different food‐producing animals worldwide. Databases (i.e., PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus) were searched from 1980 to 2017 unrestricted by language. The inclusion criteria were as follows: prevalence or incidence studies, published in peer‐reviewed journals, and they must have reported the total number of animal samples studied and the number of samples that were positive for the presence of TC. When the identification of Campylobacter species was available, this information was included in the analysis. Multilevel random‐effect meta‐analysis models were fitted to estimate mean occurrence rate of TC and to compare them among different factors potentially associated with the outcome. The mean occurrence rate of TC in food‐producing animals was 0.424 (95% CI: 0.394–0.455), and the mean occurrence rate of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli were 0.214 and 0.133, respectively. Pigs and poultry showed the highest prevalence of TC; however, there were differences in the prevalence of each Campylobacter species. Campylobacter jejuni was observed in broilers (0.322; 95% CI: 0.273–0.377) and hens (0.395; 95% CI: 0.265–0.542), while C. coli was restricted essentially in pigs (0.553; 95% CI: 0.541–0.650). The prevalence of C. jejuni in intensively bred cattle was higher (0.302; 95% CI: 0.227–0.389) than the prevalence in extensively bred cattle (0.172; 95% CI: 0.119–0.242) while the prevalence of C. coli was similar (0.051; 95% CI: 0.028–0.091 vs. 0.050; 95% CI: 0.027–0.091) in both production systems. Agar with or without blood used for the isolation of TC did not affect the prevalence observed. The method of species identification did not seem to generate differences in the prevalence of Campylobacter species. The prevalence of Campylobacter in primary food production has a strong impact on the entire agri‐food chain. National authorities must monitor the situation with the aim to establish the appropriate risk management measures.     

Sensitivity of Direct Culture,Enrichment and PCR for Detection of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli in Broiler Flocks at Slaughter

Broiler chicken flocks are a significant source of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli that result in the major public health problem of campylobacteriosis. Accurate estimates of the prevalence of both C. coli and C. jejuni in flocks would enhance epidemiological understanding, risk assessment and control options. This study combined results from a panel of 10 detection tests (direct culture, enrichment and PCR) on caecal samples from flocks at slaughter. A parallel interpretation approach was used to determine the presence of Campylobacter spp. and for C. jejuni and C. coli individually. The sample was considered positive if at least one method detected the target and this interpretation was taken to represent a ‘proxy gold standard’ for detection in the absence of a gold standard reference test. The sensitivity of each individual method to detect Campylobacter spp., C. jejuni and C. coli was then estimated relative to the proxy gold standard. Enrichment in adapted Exeter broth (deficient in polymyxin B) with a resuscitation step was 100% sensitive, whilst direct culture on modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA) was highly sensitive (97.9%). Enrichment methods using Preston broth and Bolton broth were significantly less sensitive. Enrichment in Exeter broth promoted the recovery of C. jejuni, whilst enrichment in Bolton broth favoured C. coli. A RT‐PCR detection test could identify 80% of flocks that were co‐colonised with both species. This study found that 76.3% (n = 127) of flocks were colonised with Campylobacter spp. The majority (95.9%) of Campylobacter‐positive flocks were colonised with C. jejuni; however, approximately one‐third of positive flocks were simultaneously colonised with both C. jejuni and C. coli. The findings highlight the impact of different detection methodologies on the accuracy of the estimated incidence of both C. jejuni and C. coli entering the abattoir within broiler flocks and the associated public health risks.     

Salmonella,Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile,and anti‐microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of sympatric meso‐mammals in southern Ontario,Canada

The role of free‐ranging wildlife in the epidemiology of enteropathogens causing clinical illness in humans and domestic animals is unclear. Salmonella enterica and anti‐microbial resistant bacteria have been detected in the faeces of raccoons (Procyon lotor), but little is known about the carriage of these bacteria in other sympatric meso‐mammals. Our objectives were to: (a) report the prevalence of Salmonella and associated anti‐microbial resistance, Campylobacter spp, Clostridium difficile, and anti‐microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) in southern Ontario; and (b) compare the prevalence of these bacteria in the faeces of these meso‐mammal hosts with raccoons from a previously reported study. Faecal swabs were collected from striped skunks and Virginia opossums on five swine farms and five conservation areas from 2011 to 2013. Salmonella was detected in 41% (9/22) and 5% (5/95) of faecal swabs from Virginia opossums and striped skunks, respectively. None of the Salmonella serovars carried resistance to anti‐microbials. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp., C. difficile, and anti‐microbial resistant E. coli ranged from 6% to 22% in striped skunk and Virginia opossums. Using exact logistic regression, Salmonella was significantly more likely to be detected in faecal swabs of Virginia opossums than skunks and significantly less likely in faecal swabs from skunks than raccoons from a previously reported study. In addition, Campylobacter spp. was significantly more likely to be detected in raccoons than opossums. Salmonella Give was detected in 8/9 (89%) of Salmonella‐positive Virginia opossum faecal swabs. Our results suggest that striped skunks and Virginia opossums have the potential to carry pathogenic enteric bacteria in their faeces. The high prevalence of Salmonella Give in Virginia opossum faecal swabs in this study as well as its common occurrence in other Virginia opossum studies throughout North America suggests Virginia opossums may be reservoirs of this serovar.     

A Cross‐Sectional Study Examining Campylobacter and Other Zoonotic Enteric Pathogens in Dogs that Frequent Dog Parks in Three Cities in South‐Western Ontario and Risk Factors for Shedding of Campylobacter spp.

An estimated 6 million pet dogs live in Canadian households with the potential to transmit zoonotic pathogens to humans. Dogs have been identified as carriers of Salmonella, Giardia and Campylobacter spp., particularly Campylobacter upsaliensis, but little is known about the prevalence and risk factors for these pathogens in pet dogs that visit dog parks. This study examined the prevalence of these organisms in the faeces of dogs visiting dog parks in three cities in south‐western Ontario, as well as risk factors for shedding Campylobacter spp. and C. upsaliensis. From May to August 2009, canine faecal samples were collected at ten dog parks in the cities of Guelph and Kitchener‐Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Owners were asked to complete a questionnaire related to pet characteristics and management factors including age, diet and activities in which the dog participates. Faecal samples were collected from 251 dogs, and 189 questionnaires were completed. Salmonella, Giardia and Campylobacter spp. were present in 1.2%, 6.4% and 43.0% of faecal samples, respectively. Of the Campylobacter spp. detected, 86.1% were C. upsaliensis, 13% were C. jejuni and 0.9% were C. coli. Statistically significant sparing factors associated with the shedding of Campylobacter spp. included the feeding of a commercial dry diet and the dog's exposure to compost. Age of dog had a quadratic effect, with young dogs and senior dogs having an increased probability of shedding Campylobacter spp. compared with adult dogs. The only statistically significant risk factor for shedding C. upsaliensis was outdoor water access including lakes and ditches, while dogs >1 year old were at a lower risk than young dogs. Understanding the pet‐related risk factors for Campylobacter spp. and C. upsaliensis shedding in dogs may help in the development of awareness and management strategies to potentially reduce the risk of transmitting this pathogen from dogs to humans.     

A repeated cross‐sectional study of the epidemiology of Campylobacter and antimicrobial resistant Enterobacteriaceae in free‐living Canada geese in Guelph,Ontario, Canada

From May through October 2016, we conducted a repeated cross‐sectional study examining the effects of temporal, spatial, flock and demographic factors (i.e. juvenile vs. adult) on the prevalence of Campylobacter and antimicrobial resistant Enterobacteriaceae among 344 fresh faecal samples collected from Canada geese (Branta canadensis) from four locations where birds nested in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter among all fresh faecal samples was 9.3% and was greatest in the fall when these birds became more mobile following the nesting season. Based on 40 gene comparative genomic fingerprinting (CGF40), the increase in prevalence noted in the fall was matched by an increase in the number of unique CGF40 subtypes identified. Resistance to colistin was detected most commonly, in 6% of Escherichia coli isolates, and was highest in the late summer months. All colistin‐resistant isolates were negative for the mcr‐1 to mcr‐5 genes; a chromosomal resistance mechanism (PmrB) was identified in all of these isolates. The prevalence of samples with E. coli exhibiting multi‐class resistance or extended spectrum beta‐lactamase was low (i.e. <2% of samples). The intra‐class correlation coefficients, estimated from the variance components of multilevel logistic regression models, indicated that the shedding of Campylobacter and antimicrobial resistant E. coli among geese within a flock (i.e. birds collected from the same site on the same day) was moderately correlated. Spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal clusters identified using the spatial scan statistic, largely supported the findings from our multi‐level models. Salmonella was not isolated from any of the fresh faecal samples collected suggesting that its prevalence in this population of birds was very low.