The California Agricultural Workers Health Survey

The California Agricultural Workers Health Survey was a statewide cross-sectional household survey of 970 hired farm laborers. Randomly selected participants residing in randomly selected dwellings were recruited in seven communities representing all of the state's agricultural regions. Participants were interviewed in their preferred language by professional staff. The response rate was 83%. The comprehensive interview included self-reported health conditions, doctor-reported health conditions, work history, workplace health conditions, field sanitation, and work-related injuries. A farm workplace injury during the twelve-month period prior to the interview was reported by 6% of male workers (95% CI: 4% - 8%) and 2% of female workers (95% CI: 1% - 3%). Significant numbers of both male (41%) and female (40%) workers reported persistent pain (every day for more than one week) in the back, neck, knees, shoulders, hands, feet, or multiple body parts. The number of body parts in which female workers reported persistent pain correlated with increased years of U.S. hired farm work (Spearman r = 0.24, p < 0.01). Direct contact with pesticides from being sprayed or drifted upon among both male and female workers was associated with multiple workplace health conditions such as irritated, itchy, or water eyes (male: OR 2.9, 95% CI: 1.6 - 5.0; female: OR 13.8, 95% CI: 4.3 - 44.7). Persistent stomach aches among male and female participants was associated with being required to taste unwashed grapes for sweetness while picking (male: OR 4.6, 95% CI: 2.1 - 9.9; female: OR 5.8, 95% CI: 2.6 - 12.6).     

Job hazards for musculoskeletal disorders for youth working on farms

A series of eight focus groups were convened to: (1) identify tasks and activities performed by youth on farms with the potential for causing non-traumatic work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs); (2) determine the participants perceptions about risks of MSDs for youths performing those tasks; and (3) determine other factors that might relate to MSDs for youth working on farms, such as possible interventions for prevention. Seventy-two farm family members, 40 adults and 32 farm youth aged 8-18, participated in focus groups. Ten questions were posed to each of the eight groups about what tasks youth perform on the farm, how the work is assigned, and what risk factors are associated with the work. There was general agreement among the adults that maturity rather than age is the dominant factor for determining what tasks are performed by youth workers on the farm. Youth, on the other hand, believed that task urgency dictated what jobs were assigned to youth workers. Most adults indicated that lifting objects, forking, or shoveling was responsible for most of the serious non-traumatic injuries. Bending over while working, sitting in an awkward position looking back at equipment from a tractor, sitting in a cramped position, looking down at a combine header, and long hours of work were also identified as potential problems. Youth described muscle aches and strains of the legs, arms, shoulder, back or neck as everyday occurrences. According to the youth, "If it's not broken, you're fine". Only basic training is provided and most respondents believed that youth learned best through observation. There was general agreement that physician recommended guidelines for assigning youth to tasks would be ignored unless they carried the force of the law.     

Rollover protection on New York tractors and farmers' readiness for change

Tractor overturns contribute significantly to fatalities in New York State agriculture. On-site inspections a decade ago indicated that approximately 60% of tractors were without effective rollover protection. Our objectives were: to describe the current prevalence and distribution of rollover protective structures (ROPS) on New York farm tractors, to identify characteristics associated with the absence of ROPS, to explore segmenting the New York farm community on readiness for ROPS retrofitting, and to identify demographic characteristics that might assist in this segmenting. A random selection of 644 livestock, dairy, fruit, cash crop, vegetable, and organic farms were contacted for a telephone survey. Of 562 farms (87%) participating, 102 (18.1%) had all tractors equipped with ROPS and 138 (24.6%) had none. A disproportionate number of livestock, cash crop, and organic operations had no ROPS. Rates of ROPS-equipped tractors correlated directly with farm size and annual hours of tractor operation. Older farmers had a lower proportion of ROPS tractors. The presence of a child operator did not affect the proportion of ROPS tractors. After weighting the sample, the total number of non-ROPS tractors in New York is estimated at more than 80,000. In addition to providing key farm demographics, the survey enabled placement of farmers on a "stage of change" continuum related to readiness for retrofitting. Three-quarters of New York farmers are in the "precontemplation" stage of change relative to ROPS retrofitting, and this varies little by size of operation, age of farmer, or the presence of child tractor operators. Stage of change may relate to hours of tractor operation (p = 0.05) and does relate to commodity (p = 0.003) due primarily to the higher proportion of crop farmers in the earliest stage of change. The goal of retrofitting all New York farm tractors with ROPS appears nearly as daunting as it did a decade ago.     

Safety-related knowledge and behavior changes in participants of farm safety day camps

Significant resources are devoted to conducting farm safety day camps throughout North America, but the impact and effectiveness of these programs has not been systematically demonstrated. This project assessed changes in safety-related knowledge and behaviors among participants in the Progressive Farmer Farm Safety Day Camp program. A written pre-test and a three-month telephone post-test were administered to three samples of participants, ages 8 to 13, in camps held in 1999, 2000, and 2001. A sample of 20 to 30 camps was included in each year of the study, with a total sample of 1,780 participants for all three years. The pre-test and post-test contained questions related to first aid and to safety around animals, ATVs, farm equipment, flowing grains, and tractors. Three scores were computed from responses to 20 knowledge and behavior items. A knowledge score indicated the number of 8 knowledge items answered correctly, a behavior risk score indicated the amount of risk exposure for the child based on 8 behavior items, and an ATV safety gear risk score indicated, for those who rode ATVs, the level of risk due to lack of proper safety gear (4 items). From pre-test to post-test, there was an increase in knowledge scores and a decrease in behavior risk scores and ATV safety gear risk scores. These changes were consistent both for males and females, for farm residents and non-farm residents, and across all ages in the sample. These results support claims for the effectiveness of farm safety day camps for increasing knowledge and improving safe practices among camp participants.     

A study of the impact and efficacy of health fairs for farmers

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two regional multi-disciplinary farm health fairs, pairing cardiovascular and agricultural health and safety risk factor assessments and education, in agricultural regions in southern Minnesota in 1999 and 2001. This study explores the rationales and motives cited as having an influence on: (1) work practice and lifestyle adaptations, (2) resistance to such changes, and (3) compliance with health fair recommendations. Evaluation took the form of standardized telephone surveys and callbacks with an open-ended component administered by a parish nurse interviewer and conducted six months following each of the fairs. Participants had received individualized work practice and lifestyle recommendations based upon their medical results and questionnaire responses. Of the 378 total attendees at the two farm health fairs, 272 (72%) participated by filling out on-site questionnaires, and 284 (75%) completed a post-fair interview. Participants who were actively farming totaled 237 (63%) of all participants. A majority of those interviewed on callback (78%) reported either work safety or lifestyle changes, while 47% of those actively farming claimed varying work safety changes as a result of the fair. The conclusions drawn from the follow-up interviews include: (1) the two farm health fairs resulted in a substantial number of participants positively modifying lifestyle and work practices, (2) the stand-alone farm health fairs were effective in attracting farmers, and (3) low-level stressors identified in the participants could be effectively addressed by knowledgeable rural health care resources such as parish nursing.     

Nonfatal occupational injury among California farm operators

We conducted a population-based telephone survey addressing farm-work-related (FWR) injuries among California farm operators. Of 1947 participants (80.4% response), 135 farm operators reported 160 FWR injuries in the preceding year, yielding a one-year cumulative incidence for any FWR injury of 6.9% (95% CI 5.8%-8.2%), or a mean 8.2 FWR injuries per 100 farmers in the preceding year (95% CI 6.8-9.7). Multiple injury events in the same individual occurred more frequently than predicted by chance. Sprains and strains (29.4%) were the most frequently reported injury and predominantly involved the back. Overexertion represented the most frequent external cause (24.2%), followed by machinery (14.3%), falls (13.0%), and animals (12.4%). Factors associated with FWR injury included white ethnicity (OR 3.19; 95% CI 1.38-7.36), increased annual hours worked on the farm, low levels of administrative work, and increased percentage of time working with livestock. FWR injury experience of California farm operators is comparable with that reported for other agricultural populations. Above-expected frequency of multiple injuries supports involvement of personal or environmental risk factors. Preventive efforts should focus on higher-risk groups and preventing overexertion and muscle strain and injury related to machinery, falls, and animals, especially livestock.     

Ergonomic analysis of New York apple harvest work using a Posture-Activities-Tools-Handling (PATH) work sampling approach

Although back, neck, and shoulder strains are common among migrant and seasonal orchard workers, little data currently exist regarding the ergonomic factors contributing to this problem. We adapted Posture-Activities-Tools-Handling (PATH) instruments and methods for ergonomic job analysis of apple harvest work in three New York orchards, and used the resulting protocol to quantify hazardous activities, loads, and postures. Using a prototype developed previously, we trained twelve contract orchard observers with classroom training and supervised orchard practice. The PATH data were then collected on 14 orchard workers over four days (2,900 observations). Mean coefficients of variation ranged from a low of 0.212 (standing leg neutral) to a high of 0.603 (trunk moderate flexion). Most frequently observed activities were: picking (62.9%), placing and moving apples in the bag (8. 7%), and walking (8.1%). Weight bearing (>10 lb, >4.54 kg) was observed 78.5% of the time throughout a range of activities. Apple harvest work is comparable with other ergonomically high-risk occupations. Future research should focus on low-cost interventions that reduce load and awkward postures.     

Risk factors for occupational injuries among full-time farmers in Finland

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the frequency of and farm management-related risk factors for occupational injuries among full-time farmers. A computer-assisted telephone interview was conducted among randomly selected self-employed full-time farmers (n = 1182; 911 male and 271 female), The response rate was 86%. Two-thirds of the respondents raised dairy or beef cattle. Nearly 16% of the farmers had experienced one or more occupational injuries requiring medical consultation during the past 12 months; the total number of such injuries was 222. Injuries were more common among male (17 injuries/100 person-years) than female farmers (13 injuries/ 100 person-years). The injuries occurred most frequently in animal husbandry work (n = 97). Falling or slipping was the most common mechanism of injury. Poisson regression with a stepwise (forward) model selection procedure identified the following risk factors for occupational injuries: male gender, younger age, cooperation with other farmers, perceived high accident risk, and stress symptoms. The adjusted rate ratios for these risk factors ranged from 1.40 to 1.96. This study indicates that interventions are needed, particularly among male farmers in their early years of full-time farm operation. At this stage of life, heavy financial burden and stress while establishing and expanding production may contribute to injuries. To reduce stress and related injuries, we recommend guidance for farmers regarding the organization and management of farm work.     

Occupational health survey of farm workers by camp health aides

Little is known about the magnitude of occupational health problems among migrant farm workers. A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in two migrant farm worker communities: Homestead, Florida, and Kankakee, Illinois. Camp Health Aides (CHAs) interviewed 425 workers about job tasks, personal protective equipment (PPE), field sanitation, work exposures, and selected health conditions. Limited provision of personal protective equipment was reported among those reporting early re-entry tasks: 35% in Kankakee and 42% in Homestead were provided gloves, and 22% in Homestead and 0% in Kankakee were provided protective clothing. About two-thirds were provided toilet facilities and water for hand-washing. Workers reported high prevalences of health conditions consistent with exposure to ergonomic hazards and pesticides. The prevalence of back pain in the past 12 months was 39% in Homestead and 24% in Kankakee. Among Homestead participants, 35% experienced eye symptoms, while 31% reported skin symptoms. These symptoms were less prevalent among Kankakee participants (16% for both eye and skin symptoms). Specific areas of concern included back pain associated with heavy lifting and ladder work; eye and skin irritation associated with fertilizer application tasks and with working in fields during or after spraying of chemicals, especially early re-entry of sprayed fields; and skin irritation associated with a lack of access to hand-washing facilities. In both Kankakee and Homestead, better adherence to safety standards is needed, as well as greater efforts to implement solutions that are available to help prevent work-related musculoskeletal problems.     

An instrument to measure musculoskeletal symptoms among immigrant Hispanic farmworkers: validation in the nursery industry

We report on the construction and psychometrics of a survey measure of musculoskeletal symptomatology for use with Spanish-speaking immigrant farmworkers. Survey development included focus groups with workers, forward and backward translations, and pilot testing. The final survey includes a body diagram and items about symptom severity, frequency, and duration and about self-treatment, medical care, and job tasks. We report on the initial test of the survey with 213 commercial nursery workers in Southern California. Fifty-five percent of the workers reported pain, with 30% reporting back pain, 21% reporting upper extremity pain, 19% reporting lower extremity pain, and 10% reporting neck and shoulder pain. A composite symptom score exhibited acceptable test-retest reliability (r = 0.41, p < 0.01) over the annual agricultural cycle. Greater symptomatology was associated with greater frequency of self-treatment (r = 0.42, p < 0.01), seeking professional health care (t = 2.49, p < 0.05), and exposure to high-risk jobs (OR = 2.1, p < 0.05, CI = 1.0 to 4.4), supporting the validity of composite score.     

The Upper Midwest Health Study: a case-control study of primary intracranial gliomas in farm and rural residents

Since several studies indicated that farmers and agricultural workers had an excess risk of brain cancer, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health initiated the Upper Midwest Health Study to examine risk of intracranial glioma in the non-metropolitan population. This population-based, case-control study evaluated associations between gliomas and rural and farm exposures among adults (ages 18 to 80) in four upper midwestern states (Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin). At diagnosis/selection, participants lived in non-metropolitan counties where the largest population center had fewer than 250,000 residents. Cases were diagnosed 1 January 1995 through 31 January 1997. Over 90% of 873 eligible ascertained cases and over 70% of 1670 eligible controls consented to participate. Participants and nonparticipants, evaluated for "critical questions" on main and refusant questionnaires, differed significantly in farming and occupational experience, ethnicity, education, and lifestyle. The 1,175 controls were more likely than the 798 cases to have reported ever drinking alcohol (77% vs. 73%, adjusted odds ratio (OR) 0. 73, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.59-0.92) and having had panoramic dental x-rays (34% vs. 29%, OR 0. 75, CI 0.61-0.92). Controls spent a greater percentage of their lives in non-metropolitan counties (78% vs. 75%, OR 0.81, CI 0.67-1.09). Among ever-farmers, controls were more likely to have had exposure to farm insecticides (57% vs. 50%, OR 0.75, CI 0.59-0.95) and farm animals (96% vs. 91%, OR 0.48, CI 0.25-0.90). Moving to a farm as an adolescent (ages 11 to 20) vs. as an adult was associated with a greater risk of glioma. In our study sample, farm or rural residence and summary farm exposures were associated with decreased glioma risk. However, nonparticipation by never-farming eligible controls could have affected results. Comparisons of farm chemical exposures may clarify associations between farming and glioma that others have reported.     

Farm health surveillance in the Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area: a pilot study

Surveillance of agricultural work-related illness and non-fatal injuries is limited and considered to be a major gap in prevention and policy-making capacity. This pilot study evaluated the utility of the Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area (MESA) and its farm residency cohort to identify and monitor potential priorities for prevention and control. MESA is a defined geographic region that serves as a resource for conducting population-based health research. Nearly all of the residents receive their health care from the Marshfield Clinic and affiliated hospitals, providing archived electronic medical information to characterize past and present diagnoses. Based on scientific literature and national research priorities, five broad health issues (injuries, back problems, hearing loss, respiratory conditions, and dermatologic conditions) were selected. To estimate age-specific and age-adjusted incidence and prevalence, we followed a fixed cohort of 1995 MESA residents through 2002. Standardized incidence ratios and standardized prevalence ratios were also estimated to quantify the potential impact of farm residency. Linking MESA, its farm residency cohort, and the clinic's data archives allowed successful identification of significant associations with agricultural exposure for a few conditions and subconditions related to consensus priorities in agricultural health, particularly among men. These included extrinsic alveolitis, organic dust toxic syndrome, back pain, osteoarthrosis, and certain injuries. However, the system was generally not able to demonstrate strong influence of farm residency on disease occurrence for many conditions specifically selected for their likely capacity to show such influence. Future surveillance systems should supplement clinical data with other sources of information on health events and should be adequately powered to focus on narrower ranges of health conditions.     

Farmers' perceptions and concerns: the risks of driving farm vehicles on rural roadways in North Carolina

This study focuses on farmers' perceptions of roadway safety and reviews specific and pertinent North Carolina rural road crash data to evaluate their perceptions and concerns. A survey was mailed to 1,357 prospective participants throughout North Carolina. Of these, 656 (48.3%) North Carolina farmers completed and returned the survey. The study revealed that while the majority of respondents took a number of specific safety measures to ensure their safety while driving their tractor on rural roads, most believed that driving their tractor on rural roads was more dangerous than it was five years ago. Few respondents believed that laws governing tractors on rural roads are well known by urban residents. While a majority of the respondents would support a law to mandate the use of a slow-moving vehicle (SMV) emblem on the back of slow-moving farm equipment, a majority also believed that a more effective way to mitigate potential crashes would be to ensure that all farm vehicles had blinking or flashing lights, that diamond-shaped caution signs depicting a tractor were posted on roadways with frequent tractor traffic, and that roadway shoulders were created or widened on roads with heavy farm traffic so that tractors could move off the roadway. Only 22% of respondents felt safe driving their tractor on rural roadways in North Carolina. Most respondents felt that the biggest problem with roadway safety was the lack of respect and increased speed of other drivers. Recent data indicate that in crashes involving farm vehicles, citations were issued to 34% of the non-farm vehicle operators and 24% to farm vehicle operators. For those driving non-farm vehicle who were deemed at fault, 66% were cited for failure to reduce speed. For those driving farm vehicles, the most frequent citation involved the lack of safe movement.     

Sowing the seeds of hope: providing regional behavioral health supports to the agricultural population

In 1999, project leaders from seven states (i.e., Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin) began to share ideas and resources for providing behavioral health assistance (i.e., mental health counseling and addictions services) to stressed farmers, ranchers, farm workers, and their families. The seven states are among those most impacted by the farm crisis of the 1980s and again by low commodity prices and disasters such as droughts and floods in the 1990s. Project leaders conferred in monthly telephone conference calls and by 2001 began meeting in semi-annual face-to-face meetings to formally agree on a mission, program components, and management structure. Administrative functions were transferred from the Wisconsin Office of Rural Health and Wisconsin Primary Healthcare Association, to AgriWellness, Inc., a regional nonprofit corporation founded to provide technical assistance, grant writing, training of service providers, and other administrative supports. The Sowing the Seeds of Hope program has become a model for the provision of behavioral health supports for the agricultural population, including development of farm stress telephone hotlines, provision of confidential and affordable outpatient mental health and substance abuse counseling, training of professional providers in agricultural behavioral health, training of indigenous farm and rural residents as outreach workers who can respond to disasters of all types, and weekend educational retreats for farm residents. The program has achieved economy of scale by sharing expertise across state boundaries and the formation of a regional administrative structure. Yet, many challenges exist, the greatest of which is obtaining ongoing permanent support for the increasing numbers of uninsured and underinsured people involved in agriculture.     

Interventions to reduce low-back injury risk among youth who perform feed handling and scooping tasks on farms

Children and adolescents who perform farm chores are exposed to cumulative trauma injury risks, particularly to the low back. For example, they may routinely handle heavy materials and need to adopt awkward postures during farm chores. Two potential interventions aimed at reducing low-back injury risk were examined in the laboratory: the use of a rugged cart and proper orienting of feed bags to ease feed transport; and the use of a modified feed bin, intended to allow easier access to product scooped from the bin at different levels. A lumbar motion monitor device was used to quantify trunk movement and determine injury risk level. Fourteen male and female youth who regularly perform these farm chores participated in the study. The cart significantly reduced low-back injury risk by nearly 10%, compared with manual feed bag lifting and carrying. The modified feed bin did not significantly reduce low-back injury risk, compared with traditional scooping. Regardless of the method used, however, scooping feed from the top of the bin reduced lower back disorder risk by 50% or more compared to the two lower levels. This study showed that relatively simple and low-cost solutions can be applied to farm environments to help protect the low backs of youth who perform farm chores.     

Musculoskeletal discomfort,injuries, and tasks accomplished by children and adolescents in Wisconsin fresh market vegetable production

Little or no research is available about the tasks that children and adolescents perform in small scale, fresh market vegetable production. A mail questionnaire was administered in an exploratory study to an age-stratified, convenience sample of children and adolescents age 5 to 18 (n = 81) who were working on Wisconsin fresh market vegetable operations. Children and adolescents reported averaging 349 hours of farm work last year. Youths completed over 1/5 of all the tractor operation and produce loading and unloading that was completed by adults or children on their farms; 1/7 of the weeding, produce washing, and packing; and 1/12 of the hand harvesting during typical weeks when they worked. Fifty percent of 15-18 year olds reported experiencing low back discomfort in the last year, and 25% reported disabling discomfort. Children and adolescents performed the same range of tasks and often the same scope of work as adults. Further investigation with larger, more representative youth samples is needed to confirm these findings.     

Risk perceptions, barriers, and motivators to tractor ROPS retrofitting in the New York state farm community

The prevalence of tractor rollovers among agricultural workers has made the retrofitting of tractors with rollover protective structures (ROPS) and seat belts a public health priority for agricultural health and safety specialists. To address this concern, the New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health (NYCAMH) developed a seven-question survey, designed to assess perceptions of risk as well as potential motivators and barriers to retrofitting. Data from 465 phone surveys were gathered from New York State farmers representing various commodities and farm sizes. Analysis of responses to three qualitative questions contained in the survey indicated that most farmers in New York understand the importance of ROPS but lack the proper motivation to consider retrofitting. It appears that more convenient safety strategies, cost, and age of the tractor compete with a farmer's initiative to retrofit. In addition, survey responses illustrate that although many farmers believe ROPS are important in a general sense, many believe that this safety measure is not necessary for them in particular. Frequent motivators to retrofitting are concerns about safety, although the authors conclude that a more thorough analysis of these "general safety concerns" in qualitative interviews is important.     

The community benefits of farm safety day camps

In addition to the direct impact of a farm safety day camp on its participants' knowledge and safety awareness, there are extended and indirect effects that occur through the wider dispersion of information and the involvement and cooperation of community members. Reports completed by 228 coordinators of farm safety day camps, report forms completed by 5,037 volunteers at farm safety day camps, and telephone interviews with 924 parents of farm safety day camp participants were analyzed for evidence of the impact of the camps beyond the immediate knowledge gained by the children who participated. These data indicate that the indirect benefits to a community include enhanced safety awareness within the wider community as children and adult volunteers disseminate the information they learned, as well as enhanced community strength and cohesiveness resulting from the cooperation of many individuals and organizations in achieving a common goal.     

Determinants of high pesticide exposure events in the agricultural health cohort study from enrollment (1993-1997) through phase II (1999-2003)

We conducted an analysis of the determinants of high pesticide exposure events (HPEEs), which are defined as self-reported incidents of high exposure to pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals in the Agricultural Health Study, a cohort of private applicators and their spouses residing in North Carolina or Iowa, and commercial applicators residing in Iowa. We examined the risk of HPEEs occurring between enrollment (phase 1: 1993-1997) and follow-up (phase II: 1999-2003) among participants who completed the phase II questionnaire (n=43,149) by calculating hazard rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals using Cox proportional-hazard regression. During the followup period, 1,582 HPEEs were reported (3.8%). HPEE risk was significantly higher among Iowa residents, younger participants, those with a hearing deficit, a risk-taking personality, and an HPEE prior to enrollment. Among private applicators (n=30,102), larger farm size, higher frequency and duration of pesticide use, spraying pesticides with open cab windows, using a tractor cab without a charcoal filter, repairing spray equipment, wearing work clothing more than two days without changing, not removing work boots before entering the home, and storing pesticides in the home were associated with significantly higher HPEE risk. Among commercial applicators (n=2326), higher frequency of pesticide use was associated with a significantly higher HPEE risk. Among spouses (n=10,721), higher frequency of pesticide use, using an application vehicle with a cab, and storing pesticides in the home were associated with a significantly higher HPEE risk. Our findings indicate that HPEEs were associated with several modifiable pesticide handling procedures that can be targeted in safety training and education.     

The use of alum to decrease phosphorus loss from dairy farm laneways in southern New Zealand

Dairy farm laneways are sources of enriched P loss. Aluminium sulphate (alum) has been shown to decrease P loss when applied to land; our hypothesis was that alum may serve as a cost‐effective strategy to mitigate P loss from laneways connected to streams. A 4‐month field study, over the milking period when cows regularly used the laneway, showed that alum (25 and 50 kg/Al/ha) initially lowered FRP losses for four events, over 60 days, following application. If connected to a stream, the cost‐effectiveness of alum use on dairy farm laneways (51–75 USD per kg P retained) was high compared to other strategies on a grazed dairy farm.